CHAPTER  XVI. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 

(1895-1890.) 

BY  PROF.  ALEXANDER  OLDRINI. 

Scholse,  ut  recte  procedant,  praeceptoribus  optimis  opus  est— et  sana  doctrina  imbutis.  Igitur, 
caveant  consules,  ne  quid  Rospublica  detriment!  capiat-. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Eppur  si  muove ! 

The  development  of  public  education  among  the  masses  is  not  only 
the  loftiest  attainment  of  progress,  in  the  perception  of  the  intellec¬ 
tual  of  every  civilized  nation,  as  a  means  to  surely  raise  their  people 
to  destinies  marked  with  superiority  and  glory;  but  it  is  also  a  prob¬ 
lem  the  masses  themselves  nowadays  begin  to  appreciate  as  the  most 
powerful  and  objective  means  by  which  to  foster  their  social  and 
material  redemption. 

So  that,  at  the  end  of  the  wonderful  century  that  heralded  to 
humanity  at  large  the  conception  that  frontiers  can  no  more  exist 
between  nations  under  the  enlightenment  and  subsequent  growing 
applications  of  science,  education  ceases  to  be  the  patrimony  of  the 
few,  a  literary  tournament  for  the  mind,  but  affirms  itself  as  an  accom¬ 
plishment  of  the  first  order  for  one  and  all  in  the  competition  for  the 
betterment  of  life,  and  for  the  mastery, of  nature’s  eternal,  creative 
forces. 

Italy,  the  atavitical  “alma  mater  gentium,”  could  not,  on  the 
threshold  of  her  third  resurrection  (1859)  as  a  worldly  power,  fail  to 
be  strongly  and  immediately  impressed  with  the  truth  that  pervades 
t  he  modern  world,  and  her  first  national  parliament,  led  by  such  famed 
men  as  Count  Cavour,  the  staunch  supiiorter  of  the  principle  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  civil  power  for  Italy,  “a  free  church  in  a  free 
state,”  iH'omptly  decreed  the  necessity  of  compulsory  instruction. 
Then,  so  soon  as  the  Peninsula,  through  the  holocaust  of  45,000  lives, 
lost  all  along  the  Via  Crueis  of  her  martyrdom,  and  the  (for  her)  ruinous 
expense  of  $300,000,000,  could  proclaim  her  independence  from  for¬ 
eign  rule,  the  first  national  census  was  ordered  (1861).  Although  an 
initial  measure,  difficult  therefore  and  inconrplete  in  its  methods  and 
results,  that  very  first  census  brought  to  light  the  manifold  moral  and 
material  evils  of  which  the  once  glorious  land  had  become  a  helpless 
victim. 

In  certain  districts  of  central  and  southern  Italy  it  was  then  found 
that  illiteracy  had  reached  the  average  of  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
population,  Reggio  di  Calabria  and  Catania  furnishing  the  amazing 
proportion  of  93  per  cent  of  illiterates. 

Marquis  Massimo  d’Azeglio,  one  of  modern  Italy’s  most  brilliant 

839 


840 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

statesmen,  artist  and  scholar,  summed  lip  the  abnormal  situation 
thus  revealed  by  the  figures  of  the  first  Italian  census  of  publicf 
instruction  and  other  vital  matters  in  these  memorable  words:  “Italy 
is  made:  we  must  now  make  the  Italians.” 

Following  his  call,  amid  the  proverbial  indifference  of  the  Italian 
wealthy  class,  and  almost  without  means,  an  elite  of  thinkers,  legis¬ 
lators,  and  enlightened  progressive  citizens  put  themselves  at  once  to 
the  ungrateful  task  of  stamping  out  ignorance,  indolence,  and  super¬ 
stition,  against  the  will  of  the  seemingly  degenerated  Italian  masses. 
Public  men  they  were  and  humble  pioneers  of  human  progress,  -work¬ 
ing  together  as  a  sacred  phalanx  to  raise  their  historical  country  to 
the  apprehension  of  modern  civilization. 

That  some  results,  although  not  thoroughly  satisfactory,  were 
obtained  within  the  comparatively  short  period  of  forty  years,  is 
thus  due  practically  to  their  action,  of  which  the  law  Casati,  enforc¬ 
ing  public  primary  education  (1859),  was  the  first  move  in  the  right 
direction.  Afterwards  followed  the  law  of  1877,  that  expelled  sec¬ 
tarianism  from  national  education,  permitting  the  adoption  by  the 
communes  of  Italy  of  new  programmes  for  primary  schools  more  in 
touch  with  modern  aspirations  and  the  real  wants  of  the  Italian 
people. 

Under  the  law  of  1877  compulsory  education  was  enforced  by  requir¬ 
ing  the  appointment  of  teachers  for  children  between  G  and  9  years  of 
age  as  follows:  First,  in  all  communes  of  less  than  5,000  inhabitants, 
one  teacher  of  inferior  class  for  each  1,000  inhabitants;  second,  in 
the  communes  having  between  5,000  and  20,000  inhabitants,  one 
teacher  for  every  1,200  inhabitants;  third,  in  the  communes  having 
over  20,000  inhabitants,  one  teacher  for  every  1,500  inhabitants.  At 
the  end  of  1896  all  of  the  8,2G0  communes  of  Italy  had  complied  with 
the  requirements  of.  this  law. 

The  nature  of  this  sketch  is  such  that  the  writer  must  refrain  from 
quoting  the  names  and  the  works  of  all  the  worthiest  pioneers  of  edu¬ 
cational  reform  in  modern  Italy.  However,  with  a  view  to  offering  all 
the  necessary  information  with  regard  to  the  fundamental  difficulties 
that  still  stand  in  the  way  of  its  systematic  development,  he  will  offer, 
besides  the  regular  statistical  figures  by  Prof.  L.  Bodio,  the  illustrious 
chief  of  the  Italian  department  of  statistics,  a  survey  of  the  most 
recent  official  documents,  such  as  laws  and  reports  on  public  educa¬ 
tion,  etc.,  and  consider  with  special  care  the  repoits  for  1897  and 
1898  of  Prof.  Francesco  Torraca  and  Prof.  Giuseppe  Castelli,  both 
superior  officers  in  the  department  of  public  instruction,  addressed 
to  the  present  minister,  Dr.  Guido  Baecelli,  “pensatore  e  scienziato 
insigne,”  the  originator  and  the  energetic  center  of  the  recent  move¬ 
ment,  that  marks  a  turning  point  in  the  reform  of  the  whole  system 
of  education,  on  the  following  lines  of  his  programme:  “Absolute 
autonomy  in  Italy  in  superior  and  special  education ;  decentralization 
and  specialization  of  secondary  instruction;  and  public  primary  and 
normal  schools  under  the  permanent  and  immediate  control  of  the 
State.”1 


1  For  the  full  comprehension  of  the  origin  of  the  educational  system  in  Italy,  since  the  Casati 
law,  the  reader  is  respectfully  referred  to  the  information  so  intelligently  collected  for  a. 
number  of  years  by  Miss  Frances  Graham  French,  the  zealous  specialist  in  the  school  systems 
of  northern  and  eastern  Europe;  and,  furthermore,  to  the  three  sketches  successively  prepared 
by  Prof.  Oldrini  and  Prof.  Bodio,  for  1890-91;  Prof.  B.  A.  Hinsdale,  1893-94;  and  Dr.  E.  Rossi, 
1894-95,  and  published  in  the  Reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  the 
years  specified. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


841 


I.  Statistics. 

Italy:  Area,  114,410  square  miles.  Administrative  divisions,  69 
provinces,  8,260  communes  or  boroughs.  Population,  31,500,000 
(January,  1899).  Italians  abroad  estimated  at  4,000,000,  of  whom 
about  1,500,000  are  in  the  United  States. 


Number  of  pupils  in  kindergartens  and  primary  and  normal  schools  in  1895-96, 


Pupils. 

Per  100, 000  inhab¬ 
itants. 

Pupils. 

Schools. 

Kindergartens . . . 

317. 117 

1 , 020 

9 

Public  and  primary  schools . _ . . . . . _ 

2,379,349 
210, 074 
101,025 

7,650 

675 

147 

Private  schools  _ _  _ _ _  _  _  . 

29 

Evening  schools _ _  _  -  ..  . . - 

325 

9 

Sunday  schools. .  ..  _  ..  . . .  . . . . 

50,344 

7,319 

24,152 

162 

6 

Superior  female  complementary  schools  . . . . 

24 

0.69 

Normal  schools. . . . .  . . 

78 

0.48 

3,089,380 

9,934 

This  number  of  pupils  is  about  10  per  cent  of  the  total  population 
of  Italy,  besides  28,455  pupils  in  Italian  schools  abroad. 

KINDERGARTENS. 

Kindergartens  have  been  instituted  by  the  communes  into  which 
Italy  is  divided  for  purposes  of  administration,  also  by  corporations, 
private  societies,  and  citizens. 

There  are  2,813  kindergartens  in  1,888  communes,  frequented  by 
317,117  children,  of  whom  160,185  are  males  and  156,632  females;  or 
one  kindergarten  to  each  708  children  between  3  and  6  years  of  age, 
and  15.9  per  cent  of  the  children  between  those  age  limits  attending 
kindergartens. 


Comparison  for  the  last  decade  ( 1SS6-1S96 ) . 


1886. 

1896. 

Increase. 

Kindergartens _ _  .  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

1,489 
252, 763 
5,603 

2, 813 
317,117 
6, 884 

1.324 

64,354 

1,281 

Pupils  ..  . .  ..  . . . . . 

Teachers  _  _  _  _ _ _ _ 

In  992  kindergartens  all  the  children  were  admitted  free;  in  1,208 
only  the  children  of  the  poor  were  admitted  free;  in  613  all  children 
paid  (of  which  418  kindergartens  were  private  and  195  public). 

Four  hundred  and  seventy-eight  kindergartens  had  adopted  the 
method  of  Froebel,  135  that  of  Aporti,  and  2,200  both  methods. 

The  expenditure  for  the  year  1896  for  all  kindergartens  appears  to 
have  been  $1,332,000,  this  amount  having  been  supplied  by  the  state, 
the  provinces,  and  the  communes,  as  well  as  by  donations,  bequests, 
contributions,  etc.  Recently  the  kindergarten  institution  lias  been 
brought  under  the  control  of  the  scholastic  authorities,  under  the 
initiative  of  Minister  liaccelli. 


842 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

COMPULSORY  PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION. 

Teachers .- — The  number  of  public-school  teachers  in  1896  was  51,505, 
or  1.65  to  every  1,000  inhabitants — that  is,  1.47  for  primary  courses 
and  0.18  for  normal  and  superior  female  courses  complementary  of 
the  former. 

Public  day  schools. — There  were  50,526  opened  in  8,247  communes; 
that  is,  40,705  obligatory  of  the  inferior  degree  and  4,798  of  the  supe¬ 
rior,  besides  5,023  not  obligatory,  of  which  4,046  were  of  the  inferior 
and  977  of  the  superior  degree. 

School  buildings. — For  the  inferior  degree  there  were  44,751  build¬ 
ings,  with  44,431  teachers  and  1,341  assistant  teachers;  for  the  supe¬ 
rior  degree,  5,775  buildings,  located  in  1,831  communes,  provided 
with  5,447  teachers  and  286  assistants. 

Pupils. — The  total  number  of  pupils  that  attended  public  day 
schools  of  the  inferior  grade  in  1896  was  2,212,325,  of  whom  139,577 
were  in  private  schools  duly  recognized  by  the  Government. 

The  primary  inferior  degree,  divided  into  three  courses,  had  1,123,929 
pupils  for  the  first  elementary  year,  655,830  for  the  second,  and  432,566 
for  the  third. 

The  number  of  pupils  attending  the  primary  superior  course,  a 
complementary  course  of  the  inferior,  was  167,024,  of  whom  106,171 
attended  the  fourth  year’s  course  and  60,853  the  fifth  and  last;  in  all, 
167,024,  of  whom  21,560  belonged  to  private  schools  recognized  by  the 
Government  as  equal  to  the  public  ones. 

So  that  the  grand  total  for  the  five  classes  constituting  the  inferior 
and  superior  complementary  courses  in  primary  public  day  instruc¬ 
tion  was,  including  both  public  and  private  schools,  in  1896,  2,212,325 
plus  167,024 — that  is,  2,379,349,  or  8.33  for  every  100  inhabitants  in 
1896 — whereas  in  1872  the  attendance  was  6.43  per  cent  of  children 
between  6  and  12  years  of  age.  The  full  100  per  cent  in  attendance, 
under  the  obligation  of  the  law  relating  to  public  elementary  schools, 
was  possible  only  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Piedmont  and  Lombardy. 

The  number  of  public  school  buildings  regularly  opened  in  1896 
averaged  1.62  for  each  1,000  inhabitants. 

The  pupils  registered  in  each  of  them  averaged  49  for  the  inferior 
three  courses  and  29  for  the  superior  two  courses. 

The  number  of  private  day  classes  in  schools  where  there  was  no 
regular  division  between  the  inferior  and  the  superior  degree,  as  is 
the  case  in  Government  schools,  reached  4,210;  these  were  located  in 
9,000  buildings,  with  9,565  teachers  having  a  diploma  and  1,088  with¬ 
out  one.  They  were  attended  by  210,070  pupils  (69,424  males,  140,650 
females),  divided  as  follows:  165,011  in  the  inferior  three  courses 
(51,114  males,  113,897  females)  and  45,064  (18,310  males  and  26,753 
females)  in  the  superior. 

The  imoportion  of  private  school  buildings  to  the  population  was 
0.29  per  1,000  inhabitants,  the  pupils  attending  them  6.73  per  1,000 
inhabitants,  or  23  pupils  to  each  building  and  1  teacher  to  every  22 
pupils. 

There  was,  therefore,  a  total,  both  in  public  and  private  primary 
schools,  of  59,526  buildings,  62,077  teachers,  and  2,589,423  pupils,  of 
whom  2,377,336  were  in  the  three  inferior  and  212,087  in  the  two  supe¬ 
rior  grades,  or  19  buildings  per  10,000  inhabitants  on  an  average  and 
83.26  pupils  per  1,000  inhabitants,  this  latter  proportion  being  iden¬ 
tical  with  the  8.33  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  Italy  before 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM.  843 


•mentioned.  Evening,  Sunday,  female  complementary,  and  normal 
pupils  are  not  included  in  these  figures. 

Enrollment. — The  children  subject  bylaw  to  attend  primary  schools 
in  1896  numbered  2,353,165.  There  were  actually  found  to  be  enrolled 
the  following  number: 


Inferior  degree : 

Under  7  years  of  age _ 

From  6  to  9  years  of  age 

Over  9  years  of  age . 

Not  classified. . 

Superior  degree : 

Under  10  years  of  age  __ 

From  10  to  12  years _ 

Over  12  years  of  age _ 

Not  classified _ 


Grand  total 


72, 225 
1, 558, 977 
726, 968 
19, 166 

-  2,377,330 

31,391 
117,427 
62, 442 
827 

- 212,087 


2, 589, 423 


The  excess  of  the  actual  inscriptions  (2,589,423)  over  the  obligatory 
(2,353,165)  or  236,258,  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  eventual  admission  to 
school  of  children  under  6  and  children  over  12  years  of  age. 

Graduation. — The  pupils  of  the  three  inferior  classes  of  primary 
instruction,  whether  they  come  from  public  or  private  schools,  obtain 
at  the  end  of  the  third  scholastic  year  after  the  examination  a  diploma 
that  admits  them  to  the  two  next  superior  classes.  Those  having 
graduated  from  the  superior  courses  are  admitted  to  the  normal  school 
or  to  the  first  class  of  secondary  instruction,  either  classic  education 
(ginnasio)  or  technical  and  commercial  courses.  A  royal  decree 
(April  26,  1896)  prescribed  that  all  pupils  having  received  during  the 
year  a  monthly  average  of  seven-tenths  points  should  not  be  required 
to  undergo  examination  at  the  end  of  the  scholastic  year.  This  pro¬ 
vision  seemed  not  to  have  proved  practicable,  however,  in  every  case, 
since  a  subsequent  decree  (1898)  reestablished  the  obligation  of  the 
examination  for  the  pupils  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  elementary 
classes. 

Results  of  the  examinations  for  the  year  1S95-9G . 


Male. 

Female. 

Percentage  of 
Graduation. 

Male. 

Female. 

Three  inferior  courses: 

Examined . . . . . 

154,  .526 
107, 113 

16,203 
11, 556 

121, 063 
88,928 

8,339 

6,478 

Graduated  .  . . 

09.32 

73.46 

Two  superior  courses: 

Examined  _ _ 

Graduated . . . . - 

71.32 

77.08 

Night  and  Sunday  schools. — With  a  view  to  complete  the  instruc¬ 
tion  of  children  that  have  discontinued  their  studies  after  graduation 
from  the  third  year  of  compulsory  instruction  the  law  of  1877  com¬ 
pelled  them  to  attend  night  or  Sunday  schools  for  one  year  longer. 
However,  the  law  has  not  made  it  compulsory  upon  the  communes 
to  keep  night  and  Sunday  schools,  so  that  this  kind  of  public  instruc¬ 
tion  can  not  give  good  results,  lacking,  as  it  does,  proper  direction 
and  control.  Adults  are  admitted  in  them  from  the  fact  that  they 


844 


I 

■  I 

EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

are  public  and  free  of  charge  and  supported  by  the  State  and  (vol¬ 
untarily)  by  the  commune  when  not  by  private  contributions. 

In  1896  night  and  Sunday  schools  were  regularly  opened  in  1,969 
communes  only;  that  is,  night  schools  in  1,059  communes  and  Sunday 
schools  in  498,  and  night  and  Sunday  mixed  in  412.  There  were  none 
open  in  6,291  communes.  The  school  buildings  occupied  numbered 
4,687,  2,808  for  night  and  1,879  for  Sunday  schools.  The  attendance 
amounted  to  151,369  pupils,  101,025  taking  night  and  50,344  Sunday 
courses  (110,468  male  and  40,901  female). 

Superior  and  complementary  female  schools. — The  programmes  for 
these  schools  are  such  as  to  correspond  to  preparatory  courses  for 
admission  to  normal  schools.  They  include  drawing,  foreign  lan¬ 
guages,  bookkeeping,  and  other  branches  pertaining  to  both  arts  and 
professions. 

In  some  of  these  schools,  especially  if  annexed  to  conservatories  of 
music  or  private  colleges,  the  pupil  being  prepared  at  once  for  the 
diploma  of  teacher,  all  the  subjects  are  taken  up  according  to  the 
programme  of  normal  schools,  with  the  addition  of  pedagogy,  mor¬ 
als,  hygiene,  and  rights  and  duties  of  a  citizen. 

The  superior  elementary  female  schools,  however,  have  been  insti¬ 
tuted  with  the  main  object  of  securing  to  girls,  the  majority  of  whom 
do  not  pursue  special  or  higher  instruction,  a  degree  of  instruction 
superior  to  the  one  imparted  in  the  two  elementary  courses,  with  a 
view  to  enable  them  to  enter  at  once  upon  practical  bookkeeping, 
correspondence,  etc. ,  whether  in  a  store  or  with  a  commercial  firm,  or 
to  prepare  them  to  make  a  living  in  other  practical  industrial  fields, 
such  as  artificial  flowers,  gloves,  hats,  dresses  etc.,  where  young 
women  are  mostly  desired. 

In  1895-96  there  were  142  schools  complementary  to  the  elementary 
courses,  and  72  schools  so  complementary  and  also  preparatory  to  the 
examinations  for  the  diploma  of  admission  to  normal  schools.  These 
schools  had  in  all  1,765  teachers  and  7,319  girls.  The  majority  of 
them  were  private,  that  is,  there  were  137  private  to  77  public.  Of  the 
public  schools,  45  were  supported  by  bequests  and  public  donations, 
24  by  the  funds  of  the  commune,  and  8  directly  by  the  Government. 

Normal  schools i — In  1895-96  there  were  148  normal  schools,  of  which 
138  were  for  superior  instruction  (32  for  males  and  106  for  females) 
and  10  for  inferior  instruction.  The  new  law,  promulgated  in  1896, 
reduced  them  to  a  uniform  basis,  with  three  courses,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  pupil  receives  a  diploma  of  teacher  for  the  two  degrees  of 
primary  or  elementary  instruction. 

The  majority  of  the  normal  schools,  117  out  of  148  (34  for  males  and 
83  for  females)  are  now  under  the  control  of  the  Government;  the 
remaining  31,  not  following  the  official  programme,  are  free,  and  are 
divided  into  2  schools  for  males  and  29  for  females,  with  a  total  of 
2,253  pupils. 

The  total  number  of  pupils  in  Italy’s  normal  schools  in  1895-96  was 
24,152  (1,836  males  and  22,316  females),  averaging  163  pupils  to  each 
school,  of  whom  161  were  females  and  2  only  males.  Of  the  total 
imputation,  4.76  per  million  were  normal  pupils. 

The  disproportion  between  the  attendance  at  normal  schools  of 
young  men  and  young  women  really  indicates  the  increasing  tendency 
of  the  latter  to  control  the  teaching  in  the  field  of  primary  education 
throughout  the  country,  while  the  male  element,  as  will  be  explained 
later  on,  pursues  almost  exclusively  its  way  toward  secondary,  special, 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


845 


and  superior  instruction.  It  is  gratifying  to  be  able  to  state  at  this 
juncture  that  the  standard  of  efficiency  of  female  teachers  for  primary 
instruction  is  considered  by  competent  authorities  such  as  to  insure 
continued  progress  in  the  efficiency  of  the  elementary  schools  them¬ 
selves,  considered  .as  a  whole. 

The  attendance  of  the  two  sexes  at  normal  schools  will  be  better 
appreciated  by  comparison  with  the  statistical  figures  of  the  last 
decade. 


1885-86. 

1896. 

N ormal  schools  .  .  . . . . . . . . 

133 
1,287 
9, 255 
12 
88 

118 

1,836 

22,316 

8 

92 

Male  pupils _ _  _  _  _  __  ___  _  _  _ • . 

Female  pupils .  . . .  . .  _ . . . 

Percentage  of  males  _  .  . . . . . . .  . . - 

Percentage  of  females . . .  ..  __  _ . . 

In  1895-06  the  examinations  in  normal  schools  for  teachers’  certifi- 

« 

cates  were  attended  by  7,681  pupils,  of  whom  5,183  were  admitted; 
52  per  cent  being  males  and  74  per  cent  females. 

Italian  schools  abroad . — It  may  be  interesting  to  learn  of  the  efforts 
made  by  the  Italians,  under  the  intellectual  initiative  of  the  National 
Literary  Society  Dante  Alighieri,  for  the  preservation  of  the  national 
language  in  foreign  countries. 

In  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Greece,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  elemen¬ 
tary  instruction  is  given  in  33  schools  for  males,  and  22  for  females, 
attended  by  4,945  boys  and  3,145  girls — or,  for  55  schools  for  primary 
instruction,  11,087  pupils,  besides  11  kindergartens  with  1,786  children. 

There  are,  moreover,  Italian  schools  in  a  number  of  European 
States,  as  well  as  in  South  America  and  in  the  United  States,  with  an 
attendance  of  11,215  pupils  of  both  sexes,  and  a  number  of  parochial 
schools  having  about  6,053  pwpils. 

These  figures,  published  by  the  Italian  department  of  foreign 
affairs,  have  been  prepared  by  the  consular  authorities  in  the  above- 
mentioned  countries,  and  are  for  the  year  1898. 


EXPENDITURE  FOR  PRIMARY  AND  NORMAL  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 


The  communes  of  Itaty  are  compelled  by  law  to  support,  out  of 
their  income,  a  number  of  public  elementary  schools  proportional  to 
the  population;  to  pay  all  salaries  to  teachers,  clerks,  and  school 
employees;  to  contribute  to  their  pension  funds,  and  to  provide  for 
all  rentals  and  furniture,  including  gymnastic  apparatus. 

The  minimum  yearly  salary  for  teachers  paid  by  them  is  determined 
t>y  law  as  follows : 


Teachers  of  the  superior  degree: 

Cities,  males _ _ _ 

Cities,  females _ _ _ 

Country,  males _ 

Country,  females _ _ 

Teachers  of  the  inferior  degree: 

Cities,  males  . . . 

Cities,  females . . 

Country,  males  . . . 

Country,  females.  . . . 


$200  to  $204 
160  to  211 
160  to  180 
130  to  144 

180  to  200 
144  to  160 
140  to  150 
112  to  130 


These  salaries  are  increased  by  one-tenth  every  six  years  of  unin¬ 
terrupted  service,  and  four  times  in  a  period  of  twenty-four  years  of 
service. 


846 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1888-90. 

The  communes,  however,  without  obligation  under  the  law,  pay 
also  for  kindergartens,  evening  and  Sunday  schools,  and  a  number  of 
primary  schools  beyond  the  obligatory  ones,  as  well  as  for  special  nor¬ 
mal  schools  and  colleges  thereto  annexed,  for  which  they  furnish  the 
buildings  and  the  furniture  and  eventually  grant  a  certain  amount 
of  purses  for  poor  pupils. 

The  total  expenditure  of  the  communes  for  1895-96  was  about 
$12,150,000  of  which  almost  a  third  was  for  salaries  paid  to  teachers. 
Of  that  amount  $880,000  constituted  a  voluntary  contribution  by  the 
communes  for  the  aforesaid  purposes,  thus  affording  an  average  of 
$1.05  for  each  pupil  attending  day  (primary  and  normal)  schools,  and 
$1.01  for  those  attending  night  or  Sunday  schools  or  kindergartens. 
Considering  the  total- population  of  Italy,  this  expenditure  amounted 
to  39  cents  per  inhabitant. 

The  69  provinces  contributed  to  the  same  end  the  amount  of  $150,000 
only. 

The  State  contribution  for  primary  and  normal  education  for  the 
year  1896-97  was  about  $1,200,000,  covering  particularly  the  expenses  of 
the  two  special  superior  normal  institutes  for  females  of  Rome  and 
Florence,  and  of  a  number  of  female  colleges,  besides  special  subsi¬ 
dies  to  deaf-and-dumb  institutes,  to  sick  teachers  and  their  widows, 
to  special  didactic  publications,  libraries,  for  the  purchase  of  scien¬ 
tific  instruments,  etc. 

THE  TEACHERS’  PENSION  FUND. 

At  the  end  of  189G  the  pension  fund  for  the  benefit  of  elementary 
teachers,  their  widows  and  orphans,  amounted  to  $11,899,132. 

The  annual  dues  from  the  communes  to  the  fund,  being  equal  to 
the  5  per  cent  of  the  salaries  paid  and  that  of  the  teachers  themselves 
to  4  per  cent  of  their  salaries,  amounted  to  $497,550,  while  the  State 
has  contributed  annually  since  the  year  1878  to  said  fund  the  sum  of 
$50,000.  This  contribution  is  expected,  however,  to  come  to  an  end 
in  1900. 

The  full  pension  is  due  to  a  teacher  after  twenty-five  years  of  regu¬ 
lar  teaching,  on  the  basis  of  the  average  of  his  salary,  provided  that 
the  amount  does  not  exceed  the  average  of  his  salary  of  the  last  three 
years.  In  case  of  his  death  the  widow  and  orphans  are  admitted  to  the 
benefit  of  his  pension  in  proportion  to  his  already  acquired  rights,  but 
in  no  case  shall  the  pension  thus  revertible  to  the  widow  and  orphans 
exceed  two-thirds  of  the  pension  enjoyed  or  that  the  teacher  pre¬ 
viously  was  entitled  to  at  the  time  of  liis  demise. 

The  number  of  communes  obliged  by  law  to  contribute  to  the 
teachers’  pension  fund  in  1896  was  8,133.  The  kindergartens  and 
schools  subject  by  law  to  contribute  to  the  pension  fund  numbered 
40,462,  besides  404  other  special  institutions. 

The  number  of  teachers  likewise  compelled  by  law  to  contribute  to 
it  was  39,708  in  primary  schools  and  462  in  kindergartens  and  other 
educational  institutions. 

ILLITERACY. 

The  grand  totakof  illiterates  between  6  and  20  years  of  age  amounted 
in  1888  to  61.94  per  cent  (64.09  between  6  and  12  and  54.30  between  6 
and  20),  proportionally  divided  as  follows: 


N orthern  Italy . . . . . . . 40. 86 

Central  Italy . 64.61 

Southern  Italy . 83.52 

Insular  Italy  . . . 80.92 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


8-17 


The  progress  thus  realized  in  public  elementary  instruction  in  Italy 
between  1881  and  1890  is  shown  by  the  present  percentage  of  55.24 
of  illiterates  (08.04  male  and  47.43  female)  or  a  decrease  of  0.70  per 
cent  in  the  number  of  illiterates  in  fifteen  years. 

V 

II.  Report  for  1895-90  of  Prof.  F.  Torraca,  Director  of  Pri¬ 
mary  and  Normal  Instruction,  to  the  Minister  of  Public 

Education. 

Says  the  director:  “To  courageously  face  the  reality,  however  sad 
and  painful  it  may  be,  means  spurring  the  people  to  the  realization  of 
much  different  ideals.”  He  starts  by  stating  that  the  227  scholastic 
inspectors  of  Italy,  whose  annual  reports  are  gathered  by  him  through 
the  09  provincial  “provveditori,”  upon  whose  authority  the  inspectors 
directly  depend,  did  not  perhaps  perform  their  inspection  according 
to  the  expectation  of  the  department.  “  When,  ”  writes  Professor  Tor¬ 
raca,  “once  for  all  I  decided  to  know  the  whole  truth  about  the  real 
condition  of  public,  primary,  and  normal  instruction  of  the  country, 
and  began  to  read  and  compare  said  reports,  rather  tardily  and  with 
difficulty  obtained  from  our  inspectors,  I  found  that  some  abounded 
in  detail,  others  offered  only  scanty  and  incomplete  information,  while 
the  remainder  were  only  empty  rhetorical  generalities.”  Even  in  tlie 
matter  of  statistical  data  “  some  reports  offered  only  a  small  amount, 
and  others  none  at  all.”  Whenever  statistics  were  given  in  sufficient 
quantity,  he  found  that  they  Avere  prepared  on  no  uniform  basis,  either 
with  regard  to  matter  or  method. 

This  criticism  of  the  director  had  the  real  merit  of  spurring  public 
opinion  and  determining  the  movement  of  reform,  of  which  an  account 
will  be  given  further  on.  One  of  the  main  points  of  Professor  Tor- 
raca’s  criticism  is  that  in  which  he  particularly  reflects  on  the  inspect¬ 
ors’  zeal;  but  it  must  be  said  in  their  defense  that  the  law  did  not  yet 
arm  public  inspectors  enough  to  successfully  fight  the  wayward  policy 
of  many  communal  authorities,  especially  with  regard  to  questions  of 
hygiene,  buildings,  teachers’  qualifications,  pupils’  attendance,  etc. ; 
and,  furthermore,  that  to  overcome  the  evils  and  the  incompatibilities 
blocking  the  onward  march  of  public  instruction  many  an  inspector 
(“whose  chief  duty  is  to  indicate  to  the  Government  how  to  force  a 
new'  life  into  the  national  system  of  education”)  made  some  fearless, 
at  least,  if  not  very  methodical,  expositions  of  the  real  state  of  things 
as  they  found  it,  as  appears  from  the  following  quotations : 

From  a  letter  of  the  “provveditore”  of  Campobasso  (southern 
Italy),  accompanying  the  report  of  the  inspector  of  his  province: 
“The  laws  of  1878  and  1888,  providing  for  the  construction  of  new 
buildings  suitable  for  schools  and  for  the  repair  of  existing  ones, 
found  the  communal  authorities  of  this  province  reluctant.  The 
commune  of  Casa  Calenda  only  (and  there  are  133  communes  in  the 
province)  has  built  a  good  schoolhouse.  Many  of  the  buildings  that 
are  now  m  use  for  school  purposes  should  be  absolutely  given  up, 
hygiene,  pedagogy,  and  morals  imperiously  requiring  it.”  A  special 
law  seems  to  be  necessary  to  that  end,  as  in  the  rural  communes 
“there  is  not  a  single  case  of  decent  premises  that  could  contain  fifty 
to  seventy  pupils;”  and  this,  in  certain  instances,  notwithstanding 
the  good  disposition  of  the  municipalities  themselves.  The  inspectors 
of  Oristano  (Sardinia):  “In  most  of  our  communes  the  schools  are 
in  unhealthy  hamlets,  are  without  a  ceiling  or  a  floor,”  and  are  “badly 


848 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

protected  with  out-of- joint  windows.”  That  of  Sanremo  (Liguria): 
“Low  garrets,  without  air,  light,  space,  and  toilet  rooms.”  That  of 
Pallanza  (Lombardy):  “So  badly  built  and  located  that  no  child  can 
assuredly  learn  propriety  or  cleanliness  there.”  That  of  Susa  (Pied¬ 
mont)  :  “The  nonclassified  school  buildings  are  in  fact  stables,  where 
the  noise  of  the  animals  there  gathered,  such  as  oxen,  donkeys,  sheep, 
chickens,  etc.,  constitutes  a  great  distraction.”  “I  felt  repugnance,” 
says  the  courageous  inspector,  “on  entering,  and  as  the  air  that  one 
breathes  in  them  is  highly  vitiated,  I  coukl  not  endure  to  stay  long, 
so  that  my  visit  did  not  amount  to  much.  The  municipal  administra¬ 
tion,  however,  holds  that  the  pupils,  being  for  generations  used  to 
stable  schools,  do  not  suffer  by  them.” 

Such  a  state  of  things,  deplorable  in  itself,  but  which,  however, 
seems  to  be  an  exception  with  the  rural  schools  of  northern  Italy, 
assumes  a  more  general  character  in  the  southern  provinces :  “In 
almost  all  rural  schools  in  the  district  of  Isernia  there  are  no  toilet 
rooms.”  In  the  district  of  Avellino,  “seven  communes  excepted”  out 
of  66,  “the  school  buildings  are  small,  dirty,  without  light  or  air,  or 
even  toilet  closets.”  The  same  observation  holds  good  for  the  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Alghero  and  Ozieri,  “with  only  four  exceptions.”  The 
inspector  of  the  district  of  Calf anisetta  (Sicily)  writes  of  “schools 
that  are  real  prisons,  not  temples  of  morality  and  teaching,  where  the 
children  suffer  so  much  that  they  hate  to  go  there;  where,  besides, 
they  can  not  find  room  enough,”  etc.  The  inspector  of  the  district  of 
Clusone  reports  that  “the  atmosphere  of  the  schools  is  so  corrupt  from 
the  miasma  of  the  water-closets  that  they  constitute  practical  centers 
of  infection.”  In  the  commune  of  Carife  “the  second  and  third 
courses  of  male  primary  schools  are  located  in  the  building  of  an  old 
cemetery,  in  the  rear  room  of  which  there  is  still  a  pile  of  bones,” 
etc.  An  inspector  from  Sicily  concludes,  after  the  darkest  picture  of 
his  own  district,  and  almost  in  despair,  that  “veritas  odium  parit.” 

The  main  cause  for  this  incredible  state  of  things,  affecting  the 
rural  districts,  is  given  by  Professor  Torraca  in  these  words:  “It 
appears  that  the  buildings  rented  for  school  purposes,  in  most  cases, 
are  not  what  they  ought  to  be,  because  they  are  selected  by  either 
incompetent  or  interested  people.  Inspectors  report  that  in  a  number 
of  communes  the  school  buildings  are  selected,  however  unfit  and  at 
a  rental  of  two  or  three  times  their  value,  simply  because  the  owners 
of  them  are  aldermen.”  He  then  adds:  “Whenever  the  department 
of  public  instruction  saw  its  way  clear  to  act,  the  communes  have  duly 
been  recalled  to  the  fulfillment  of  their  duty.”  However,  after  so 
detailed  and  open  an  exposure  of  facts  he  finds  grounds  to  praise  many 
communes  of  northern  Italy  and  Tuscany,  and  a  few  of  southern  Italy 
for  the  progress  realized  in  school  buildings,  which,  as  one  naturally 
anticipates,  are  generally  up  to  expectation  in  the  largest  cities  of 
Italy.  The  logical  conclusion  of  the  director’s  report  on  the  subject 
is  that,  “in  order  to  eradicate  such  evils,  the  inspector  ought  to  be 
given  full  authority  with  regard  to  the  choice  of  school  buildings; 
enough  power,  in  fact,  to  cancel  if  necessary  the  rental  contracts 
made  by  the  commune,  even  when  they  have  the  approval  of  the  local 
board  of  health.”  But,  as  is  urged  by  many  an  inspector,  “the  only 
radical  measure  that  would  bring  a  remedy  in  a  short  time  to  the 
school-buildings  evil,  would  be  a  law  compelling  every  commune  to 
build  outright  a  school  at  its  own  expense  or  with  the  helj)  of  the 
subsidies  and  loans  for  that  purpose  granted  by  the  Government  to 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


849 


the  communes  in  pursuance  of  the  above-quoted  laws  of  1878  and 
1888.” 

School  furniture. — Inspectors  report  in  a  general  way  that  the 
furniture  has  been  found  good  in  16,129  schools,  deficient  in  20,403 
and  bad  in  13,497.  To  quote  the  statistics  furnished  by  the  inspector 
of  Koto,  it  appears  that  in  1895-96  in  his  district,  “  6,952  children 
being  under  legal  obligation  to  attend  school,  4,371  of  them  were 
actually  inscribed  on  the  school  rolls,  but  only  3,943  could  be  accom¬ 
modated.”  Other  inspectors  complain  also  of  the  quality  of  the 
accommodations:  “Contrary  to  hygiene  and  discipline,”  says  the 
inspector  of  Gallipoli,  although  “the  school  furniture  prescribed  by 
the  scholastic  by-laws,  aiming  only  at  the  strictly  necessary,  should 
come  within  the  means  of  every  commune.”  It  is  reported,  however, 
that  in  many  instances  ‘  6  no  regular  inventory  of  the  scholastic  fur¬ 
niture  is  ever  made,  and  that  consequently  there  is  no  regular  deliv¬ 
ery  made  to  the  teachers;”  so  that  “they  do  not  take  proper  care  of 
it,  with  the  result  that  even  new  furniture,  bought  with  the  subsidies 
of  the  Government,  becomes  in  a  few  years  useless. 

The  apparatus  and  material  used  in  instruction,  “of  which  many 
communal  officials  fail  even  to  appreciate  the  usefulness,”  have  been 
found  to  be  in  very  much  the  same  condition  as  the  furniture,  viz,  good 
in  15,790  schools,  insufficient  in  19,560,  and  less  than  that  in  16,679;  so 
that,  observes  the  much  dissatisfied  director,  “from  the  land  where  the 
orange  tree  is  in  blossom  our  thoughts  turn  with  melancholy  to  the 
northern  countries  of  Europe,  where  the  schools  have  benches  ration¬ 
ally  made;  where  the  teacher’s  chair  is  respected;  the  cabinets  for 
collection  of  objects  plentiful;  the  library  of  a  good  size;  the  wall 
maps  and  the  models  for  manual  training  efficient;  where  there  is  to 
to  be  found  a  musical  instrument  to  accompany  the  singing  of  moral 
songs,  of  psalms,  or  of  patriotic  hymns;  *  *  *  because  in  those 

countries  not  only  the  Government  or  the  municipal  authorities  look 
out  for. the  schools,  but  also  the  family  itself.” 

However  there  has  been  some  progress  realized  on  this  point,  as 
well  as  toward  the  organization  and  circulation  among  the  people  of 
scholastic  and  popular  libraries. 

As  to  the  important  question  regarding  the  heating  and  cleaning 
of  the  schools,  there  are  still  very  many  complaints,  especially  on 
account  of  unhealthy  stoves,  the  lack  of  proper  water,  and  cleanliness 
of  the  halls  and  of  the  pupils  themselves.  At  Fondri,  Itri,  and  in 
other  communes,  reports  the  inspector  of  Gaeta,  “I  found  the  pupils 
to  be  dirty  in  their  persons  and  wearing  dirty  clothing;  the  heads  of 
many  of  them  being  covered  with  sores  that  infected  the  atmosphere, 
so  that  I  had  to  order  ’them  out  of  the  schools,  although  the  official 
of  the  local  board  of  health  assumed  that  they  were  not  contagious.” 
These  evils  are  due  in  part  to  the  scarcity  of  school  janitors,  and  to 
the  lack  of  authority  and  energy  of  some  teachers. 

The  second  part  of  Professor  Torraca’s  report  bears  on  the  following 
important  subjects:  The  teachers  and  their  teaching  in  general,  the 
national  language,  arithmetic,  history,  geography,  rights  and  duties 
of  a  citizen,  penmanship,  gymnastics,  drawing,  singing,  female  edu¬ 
cation,  elements  of  agriculture,  manual  training  for  males,  etc.  He 
states  that  almost  all  the  inspectors  report  to  him  that,  as  a  whole,  the 
teachers’  education,  both  moral  and  intellectual,  which  is  the  most 
important  point,  is  generally  reputed  to  be  good;  that  they  have 

ed  99 - 54 


850 


-  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

dignity  and  that  they  conscientiously  perform  their  duties;  so  that 
during  the  year  1895-96  the  scholastic  authorities  very  seldom  have 
had  occasion  to  summon,  to  reprimand,  or  to  punish  them. 

In  the  year  1895-96,  out  of  50,048  teachers,  18,773  were  considered 
very  good  and  efficient,  23,995  tolerably  good,  while  7,280  were  teach¬ 
ers  whose  education  and  training  proved  to  be  below  the  require¬ 
ments.  Female  teachers  are  in  general  more  appreciated  than  males 
and  their  instruction  more  efficient.  Some  inspectors  charged  teach¬ 
ers  with  indolence,  with  discouragement,  with  giving  up  the  studies 
that  would  enable  them  to  keep  in  touch  with  progress.  Especially 
was  this  the  case  in  the  rural  districts,  where  many  also  are  blamed 
for  taking  up  after  school  hours  other  occupations,  sometimes  very 
inconsistent  with  their  purely  moral  mission.  “But,”  observes  one 
inspector,  “how  could  the  teacher  and  his  family  live,  if  he  has  one, 
with  the  meager  pittance,  for  instance,  of  35  cents  per  day,  that  the 
rural  teacher  of  the  third  course  earns?”  “  In  fact,”  says  another 
inspector,  “the  State  contribution  is  not  sucli  as  the  straightened 
circumstances  of  the  teachers  require,  since,  for  the  69  provinces,  this 
year  the  State  only  contributed  the  pitiful  amount  of  $342,113,  dis¬ 
tributed  among  6,741  communes,  to  help  rural  teachers  out  of  their 
distress.” 

As  to  the  efficiency  of  the  teaching  itself,  as  imparted  throughout 
the  country  in  rural  districts,  the  director  could  not  gather  sufficient 
information  from  the  inspectors’  reports  to  form  a  definite  opinion; 
but,  while  one  may  say  that  it  is  still  lacking,  and  probably  very 
much  so  from  the  point  of  view  of  new  didactic  methods  and  concep¬ 
tions  of  what  teaching  should  be  to  prove  effectual,  yet  some  progress 
has  been  realized  of  late,  and  besides  the  subject  is  being  taken  up 
with  increasing  attention  and  intelligence  every  day,  and  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  all  inspectors  urge  ‘  ‘  the  organization  of  local  school  committees 
to  serve  as  a  permanent  and  active  bond  between  the  schools  and 
themselves  and  as  a  constant  spur  for  the  teacher  to  perform  his 
duty,  keeping  in  touch  with  progress  and  new  methods.  ” 

How,  it  may  be  permitted  to  the  writer  of  this  sketch  to  say,  after 
this  rapid  survey  of  Professor  Torraca’s  report,  that  by  his  candid 
and  dispassionate  statements,  although  with  a  tinge  of  pessimism,  of 
the  real  condition  of  primary  and  normal  instruction  in  Italy  on  the 
basis  of  the  most  reliable  information  he  could  secure,  he  lias  power¬ 
fully  contributed  to  a  reform  of  education  in  Italy  and  rendered  the 
cause  of  public  education  a  signal  service;  in  fact,  the  greatest  serv¬ 
ice  that  an  official  in  his  high  capacity  could  render  by  proving  to  be 
“Amicus  Plato,  sed  magis  veritas.” 

Hon.  G.  L.  Pecile,  in  a  speech  before  the  Italian  Senate,  in  July, 
1897,  summed  up  the  whole  situation  in  these  words:  “Out  of  8,253 
communes,  only  1,800  have  an  elementary  superior  course,  6,453  hav¬ 
ing  only  the  first  course  of  three  classes.  Of  the  2,166,497  registered 
pupils,  only  412,000  reach  the  third  year;  that  is,  one-fifth,  and  of 
these  only  176,351  (according  to  the  statistics  for  1893-94),  or  8  per 
cent,  graduate.”  It  appears  natural,  therefore,  that  from  the  category 
of  non  graduates  come  almost  all  the  40  per  cent  of  illiterates  at  the 
time  of  their  enlistment  in  the  army,  or  20  per  cent  in  northern  Italy, 
and  57  up  to  63  per  cent  in  the  islands  of  Sardinia  and  Sicily;  and,  as 
delinquency  and  illiteracy  go  together,  this  last  island  lias  the  record 
for  both  in  Italy. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


851 


III.  The  Reform  and  the  Reformer. 


[Extracts  and  survey  of  the  report  of  Prof.  G.  Castelli,  director  chief  of  division  of  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  public  instruction  for  the  year  1898.] 

Nothing  could  give  a  clearer  and  more  exact  idea  of  the  progress 
of  the  reform  going  on  in  the  system  of  public  education  in  Italy  the 
last  two  years  under  the  guidance  of  Dr.  Guido  Baccelli  than  the  recent 
report  of  Professor  Castelli  on  the  most  important  matters  already 
added  to  the  program  of  primary  and  normal  schools,  viz,  agricul¬ 
tural  instruction  and  manual  training,  which  are  destined  to  dispose 
and  keep  the  Italian  people  in  a  closer  and  more  effective  connection 
with  the  schools  than  before. 

Professor  Castelli,  one  of  the  foremost  and  most  intellectual  leaders 
in  the  field  of  public  education,  and  a  staunch  supporter  of  agricul¬ 
tural  instruction  and  manual  training  since  the  beginning  of  the  agi¬ 
tation  for  their  adoption,  in  his  report  states  that  the  present 
Minister  Guido  Baccelli’s  efforts  since  1881  toward  the  reform  of  the 
administration,  discipline,  and  teaching  in  the  public  schools  have 
awakened  emulation  for  new  attainment,  ‘  ‘  both  with  the  family,  the 
teachers,  the  pupils,  and  municipal  authorities.”  “A  happy  change 
this  in  public  opinion ;  the  teachers  being  now  more  appreciated  and 
cared  for  than  in  the  past,  and  all  discrimination  having  ceased  to 
exist  between  them  and  the  authorities,  while  they  are  animated  with 
a  greater  faith  in  their  mission.”  Whereupon  the  director  announces 
that  the  school,  with  its  course  of  study  enlarged  by  the  addition  of 
practical  agriculture  and  manual  training,  is  no  longer  the  traditional 
place  where  spelling,  ciphering,  and  grammar  rules  were  taught  only 
with  a  view  to  preparation  of  the  pupils  for  secondary  instruction,  at 
the  highest,  but  “it  has  become  a  self-relying  institution,  provided 
with  sufficient  resources,  and  realizing  the  great  moral  ideal  involved 
in  the  duties  and  rights  of  a  modern  State  toward  public  education.” 
And  this,  however,  without  assuming  that  everything  is  done;  since 
two  laws  are  still  most  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  the  end  aimed 
at  by  the  minister  in  these  words:  “To  impart  sufficient  instruction 
to  the  masses,  and  to  morally  educate  them  as  far  as  it  is  possible;” 
that  is  to  say,  (1)  a  law  for  the  betterment  of  the  condition  of  the 
schools  (with  regard  to  hygiene,  discipline,  attendance,  etc.),  and  of 
their  teachers  (professional  training,  salary,  and  authority);  and  (2) 
a  law  regarding  complementary  schools  for  the  education  of  youth  in 
the  three  years  that  precede  their  compulsory  enlistment  for  military 
service ;  and  these  laws  were  ready,  b  ut  general  questions  kept  the 
Parliament  from  voting  them  as  urged  and  expected  by  Minister 
Baccelli  this  year. 

As  to  agricultural  instruction,  this  subject  was  added,  in  fact,  to 
the  branches  taught  in  the  normal  schools  some  twelve  years  ago — 
elements  of  agriculture  for  male  schools,  and  of  horticulture  and 
silk-worm  culture  for  the  female  ones — but  this  verbal  teaching  of 
the  elements  never  amounted  to  much  indeed,  because  not  supported 
by  their  practical  application. 

Dr.  Baccelli  sought  the  means  of  attaining  such  a  desirable  end ; 
and  for  that  purpose  he  addressed  a  warm  and  patriotic  appeal  in 
July,  1898,  to  the  provincial  authorities,  to  the  communes,  to  all  char¬ 
itable  and  benevolent  organizations  and  corporations,  as  well  as  to 
merchants  and  the  rich  at  large,  urging  that  “each  and  every  rural 


852 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

scliool  be  freely  provided  with  a  farming  ground  (‘campicello’)  in 
which  the  modest  rural  teacher,  personally  benefited  by  the  proceeds 
of  its  crops,  might  practically  teach  the  land-tiller’s  son  intelligent 
farming  together  with  the  elementary  branches.”  “From  that  very 
farming  ground,”  concluded  the  learned  and  noble  minister,  “upward 
through  secondary  instruction  and  special  courses,  let  the  Yirgilian 
doctrine  of  the  blessings  of  agriculture  raise  the  people  to  the  height 
of  the  Atheneum,  where  the  enlightenment  of  science  and  the  experi¬ 
mental  synthesis  will  be  associated  in  a  lofty  work  of  justice  and 
national  redemption.” 

Numberless  expressions  of  approval  from  every  class  of  citizens, 
inspired  by  a  patriotic  and  a  social  idea,  answered  this  public  call  for 
a  piece  of  land  for  the  village  school,  “thus,”  writes  Professor  Castelli, 
“attesting  that,  without  distinction  of  class  or  political  lines,  when 
duly  consulted,  the  Italian  nation  can  show  how  passionately  it  has 
education  at  heart;  no  less  in  fact  than  order,  peace,  dignity,  and 
the  integrity  itself  of  the  country.” 

During  the  exposition  of  Turin  in  1898  the  National  Congress  of 
Farmers,  and  many  other  congresses  there  held,  took  up  for  immediate 
consideration  Dr.  Baccelli’s  circular,  and  passed  in  effect  the  follow¬ 
ing  resolutions  on  the  subject:  That  the  department  of  public 
instruction  should  develop  the  teaching  of  agricultural  science  in 
national  schools  (03  schools  existed  in  1896  in  which  agriculture 
was  regularly  taught,  while  the  next  year  none  were  to  be  without  it), 
and  in  all  secondary  technical  schools  there  should  be  established 
sections  of  agriculture  and  land  surveying;  that  also  chairs  of  agri¬ 
culture  be  established  in  all  those  universities  having  already  the  two 
faculties  of  mathematics  and  physical  sciences;  that  complementary 
courses  to  the  primary  degree  and  manual  training  be  instituted  in 
all  the  rural  communes  having  none ;  that  in  order  to  multiply  the 
number  of  agricultural  schools  the  Government  should  inaugurate 
winter  itinerant  courses  for  adult  peasantry. 

At  the  end  of  1897  the  elements  of  agriculture  were  theoretically 
taught  in  471  primary  schools,  but  as  they  were  considered  by  the 
inspector  as  very  inefficient  and  far  from  the  mark,  especially  on 
account  of  the  teachers’  shortcomings,  Dr.  Baccelli,  taking  advantage 
of  the  meeting  of  117  teachers,  delegates  at  the  opening  of  the  Tenth 
National  Course  of  Manual  Training  at  Ripatransone  (of  which  men¬ 
tion  will  be  made  further  on),  ordered  a  series  of  theoretical  practical 
lectures  on  agriculture  to  be  delivered  then  and  there  by  Prof.  A. 
Rossi,  the  rector  of  the  practical  school  of  agriculture  at  Ascoli  Piceno, 
authorizing  in  the  meantime  the  “  proveditore  ”  of  that  province  to 
deliver  certificates  of  attendance  to  all  the  teachers  who  should  have 
attended  that  entire  course  of  lectures. 

This  example  was  immediately  taken  up  by  other  provinces,  where 
lectures  on  agriculture  were  delivered  by  the  most  capable  professors 
belonging  to  the  universities,  superior  schools  of  agriculture,  tech¬ 
nical  institutes,  practical  schools,  and  itinerant  classes  of  agricul¬ 
ture,  with  the  aim  of  determining  v/hat  the  teachers  should  know  in 
order  to  usefully  teach  agriculture  in  their  school.  The  result  was 
that  184  chairs  of  lectures  on  agriculture  were  established,  securing 
the  attendance  of  about  12,000  teachers,  “a  fact,  this,” says  Professor 
Castelli,  “worthy  of  the  highest  consideration,  as  it  represents  an 
imposing  spontaneous  contribution  to  that  work  in  all  the  sections  of 
the  cotuitry  by  the  most  learned  and  experienced  men.”  This  was  a 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


853 


new  start  indeed  for  the  Latin  nation,  so  habituated  to  the  principle 
of  centralization  inherited  from  the  Roman  world,  therefore  so  depend¬ 
ent  at  times  for  everything  upon  the  central  authority,  “and  one,” 
argues  Professor  Castelli  in  his  patriotic  enthusiasm,  “showing  that 
self-government  is  not  an  endowment  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  alone.” 
Row,  to  offer  proofs  of  this  assertion,  that  “there  are  in  Italy  latent 
forces  making  self-help  a  possibility  with  the  masses,”  he  adds:  “Very 
deserving  citizens  began  teaching  silkworm  culture  in  many  schools, 
leaving  the  profit  of  the  sale  of  cocoons  to  pupils  and  teachers;  others 
took  up  rational  bee  farming,  practical  cheese  making,  aquiculture, 
rural  hygiene,  and  zoology.”  Many  a  society  for  the  development  of 
industrial  manufacturing  stood  ready  to  subsidize  the  schools  for  the 
training  of  children  in  small  household  industries.  Some  offered 
implements  or  fertilizers,  others  periodicals,  technical  books,  didactic 
material,  etc. 

Concurring  with  this  unprecedented  outburst  of  individual  initia¬ 
tive  toward  public  education,  the  department  opened  a  competition 
for  a  practical  treatise  on  agriculture  for  the  normal  schools,  granting 
a  prize  of  $1,500  for  the  best  ones.  “While  it  is  still  impossible,” 
says  the  report,  “  owing  to  the  continued  progress  of  this  movement, 
to  offer  positive  statistics  of  the  number  of  ‘  school  fields  5  now  being 
cultivated,  we  know  already  of  2,257  fields,  the  size  of  which  varies 
from  that  of  a  4  small  orchard  ’  to  that  of  a  real  important  ‘  prop¬ 
erty,’  and  of  8,000  rural  schools  where  agricultural  instruction  was 
given  in  1898;  so  that  Italy  has  practically  covered  in  a  few  months 
the  ground  that  it  took  France  many  years  to  cover.  ” 

IV.  Il  Lavoro  Educativo  (Manual  Training). 

As  in  preceding  sketches  of  education  in  Italy  this  important  sub¬ 
ject  has  only  been  hinted  at,  I  think  it  useful  to  state  here  more  at 
length,  and  on  the  authority  of  the  chief  of  the  department  of  public 
instruction,  how  the  subject  has  been  taken  into  practical  considera¬ 
tion,  briefly  noting  the  different  steps  toward  its  adoption  in  Italy, 
viz:  (1)  A  circular  (1885)  of  former  Minister  Coppino  opening  the  door 
to  the  teaching  of  positive  pedagogy  by  recommending  the  addition 
of  a  kindergarten  course  to  the  courses  for  normal  preparation;  the 
study  of  drawing  in  two  superior  courses;  the  transformation  of  the 
elementary  courses  in  the  large  cities  into  popular  schools  with 
manual  training.  (2)  A  report  of  former  Minister  Villari  (1898),  now 
president  of  the  Rational  Society  Dante  Alighieri,  on  the  schools  for 
manual  and  professional  training  visited  by  him  in  Switzerland,  Ger¬ 
many,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Rorway,  and  Belgium.  (3)  The  reports  of 
Professors  Zaglia,  Agostini,  Cavazzuti,  and  Castelli  on  the  special 
courses  at  Ripatransone.  (4)  A  circular  embodying  the  programme 
for  elementary  and  normal  schools  in  1894.  (5)  The  debates  and 

resolutions  of  several  congresses  on  pedagogy  and  manual  training 
(1897);  but  above  all,  (6)  the  famous  ringing  circular  of  Dr.  Baccelli 
(July,  1898),  reasserting  the  Roman  motto,  “Ron  scholse  sed  vitas 
discere,”  that  raised  at  last  the  problem  of  agricultural  and  manual 
training  in  Italy  out  of  the  field  of  unfruitful  discussion,  closely  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  circular  thus  determining  the  sphere  of  action  for  primary 
instruction  henceforth :  “For  each  rural  school  a  field  (campicello) ;  for 
each  urban  school  the  experimental  industrial  shop ;  and  for  females 
training  in  female  occupations  and  domestic  economy.”  A  school 


854 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

with  a  held  and  shop,  to  bring  a  new  activity  into  primary  instruc¬ 
tion;  a  popular  school,  that  in  time  will  make  up  “  in  tenui  labor  ” 
for  the  didactic  and  pedagogical  inadequacy  of  the  present  Italian 
primary  instruction,  due,  above  all,  to  the  brevity  of  the  period  of 
compulsory  attendance  at  school. 

The  history  of  the  rapid  and  successful  pedagogical  crusade  in 
Italy  for  manual  and  professional  training  is  well  worth  being  shortly 
recounted  here,  owing  to  the  very  important  results  already  realized. 

On  former  Minister  Coppino’s  initiative,  a  committee  of  14  dis¬ 
tinguished  Italian  teachers  was  sent  (1897)  to  Naas  to  study  practi¬ 
cally  manual  training  as  a  means  of  education  in  “the  free  alphabet 
of  industrial  arts”  in  the  seminary  of  the  illustrious  Swedish  philan¬ 
thropist,  August  Abrahamson.  On  their  return,  after  a  visit  to  Ger¬ 
man,  Danish,  and  Swiss  training  schools,  a  system  of  manual  training 
was  devised  especially  for  Italian  pupils,  based  on  the  “marvelous 
unity  of  pedagogical  intuitions.”  Prof.  Emidio  Consorti,  of  Ripa- 
transone,  has  been  recognized  by  all  as  the  pioneer  and  the  intellec¬ 
tual  leader  of  the  new  scholastic  innovation,  in  promoting  which  he 
is  considered  a  master  “for  practical  common  sense,  firmness  of  pur¬ 
pose,  and  vigor  of  action.”  The  fundamental  principles  of  his  peda¬ 
gogical  system  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :  The  natural  activity 
of  the  child;  his  spontaneous  impulse  to  work ;  his  freedom  of  action; 
the  pleasure  of  observation;  the  sentiment  of  individuality. 

The  characteristics  of  his  experimental  methods  are  these :  Ration¬ 
ality,  science,  naturalness,  and  modernity;  having  for  elements: 
Observation,  experimentation,  induction,  and  deduction,  to  be  didac¬ 
tically  developed  as  follows : 

To  show  the  child  the  object,  with  a  brief  description  of  the  same. 

To  make  the  analysis  and  the  sketch  of  the  object. 

To  proceeed  to  its  synthesis  and  complete  its  design  upon  a  plane 
and  in  relief. 

The  school  of  Ripatransone,  owing  to  the  merits  of  Professor  Con¬ 
sorti,  its  founder,  has  recently  been  raised  by  Dr.  Baccelli  to  the  rank 
of  State  normal  institution,  and  has  already  prepared  2,500  teachers 
for  manual  and  professional  teaching  in  primary  and  normal  schools 
through  an  annual  course  extending  over  fifty  days,  to  which,  besides 
teachers  of  both  sexes  of  kindergartens  and  of  primary  and  normal 
schools,  are  admitted,  as  well  school  directors  and  district  inspectors. 

Its  programmes  include :  Elements  of  agriculture ;  domestic  econ¬ 
omy;  female  industries,  and  work  in"  paper,  pasteboard,  straw, 
willow  ware,  clay,  wire,  tin,  cloth,  wood,  etc. ;  household  employments 
and  small  rural  industries;  design. 

As  an  appropriate  conclusion  to  this  chapter,  and  with  the  object 
of  illustrating  the  spirit  of  reform  now  spreading  in  the  educational 
world  of  Italy  with  regard  to  the  philosophy  of  pedagogy,  I  think  it 
pertinent  to  quote  from  a  recent  study  by  Miss  Alessandrina  Gari- 
boldi,  one  of  the  worthiest  pupils  of  Professor  Consorti,  a  few  char¬ 
acteristic  observations  on  manual  training: 

Work  is  a  social  law.  In  its  triumph  over  nature,  humanity  owes  everything 
to  work. 

Work  may  eventually  spur,  convince,  persuade,  but  its  practice  alone  can 
impart  to  man  those  energies  and  aptitudes  and  habits  that  render  work  at  once 
necessary  and  pleasant,  as  wTell  as  useful,  active,  and  skillful. 

The  child  is  happy  only  when  he  plays;  and  when  he  plays  so  that  he  can  exert 
all  his  energies  and  activities,  muscles  and  intelligence,  senses,  heart,  and  will 
power,  he  really  works.  Surely,  everything  that  comes  to  his  hand — paper,  clay, 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


855 


wood,  stone,  iron,  etc. — he  inexorably  modifies,  changes,  breaks,  destroys;  but 
through  that  cutting,  shaping,  constructing,  or  copying  objects  and  forms,  he 
finds  out  and  creates;  thus  unconsciously  revealing  and  actually  practicing  the 
universal  law  of  analysis  and  synthesis. 

Y.  Secondary  Education. 

“GINNASII”  AND  “LICEl”  (CLASSIC  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS). 

Pending  the  Parliamentary  debates  on  the  reform,  Hon.  Senise,  in 
his  somewhat  pessimistic  but  splendid  survey  of  the  whole  educa¬ 
tional  field  of  Italy,  sarcastically  alluded  to  the  “plebeians”  invading 
the  secondary  schools  of  the  country,  especially  the  “licei,”  to  be 
turned  by  these,  an  indigestible  mass  of  students,  into  the  universi¬ 
ties  and  superior  and  special  institutes,  which  in  turn  they  overcrowd, 
and  of  which  they  are  the  actual  curse;  urging  for  such  a  national 
evil  a  remedy,  and  a  radical  one. 

Since  then  something  has  already  been  undertaken  in  that  direction 
by  the  introduction  of  a  reformed  curriculum  involving  a  reduction 
of  hours  in  purely  scientific  matters  and  in  the  Greek  language,  and 
introducing  in  their  stead  mathematics  and  one  modern  language. 
This  experiment  has  been  undertaken  in  six  “licei” :  at  Rome,  Milan, 
Turin,  Florence,  Venice, 'and  Palermo. 

Thus,  the  ensemble  of  measures  and  new  conceptions  for  the  reform 
of  primary  and  normal  and  secondary  technical  and  classic  instruc¬ 
tion  is  expected  to  rationally  transform  in  a  few  years  public  educa¬ 
tion  in  Italy,  and  to  prepare  for  university  and  superior  special 
instruction  qualitatively  better  elements  in  such  a  degree  only  as 
the  country  lias  use  for;  and  as  to  the  quantity,  more  rationally 
distributed  with  regard  to  an  agricultural  training’s  increase. 

The  abnormality  of  the  educational  system  of  instruction  in  Italy 
.  is  clearly  illustrated  by  statistics  showing  the  existing  proportions 
between  the  different  types  of  schools  and  their  object,  as  follows 


(for  1898) : 

N  umber 
of  students. 

Universities . . . . . .  23, 285 

Superior  and  special  institutes . . .  3, 166 

Industrial  and  commercial  schools . .  30, 398 


56,  849 

There  were  only  1,137  students  in  practical  and  112  in  the  superior 
schools  of  agriculture. 

The  reform  is  expected  to  correct  such  disproportion  in  favor  of 
agriculture,  ‘  ‘  one  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  new  educa¬ 
tional  policy,”  says  Prof.  G.  Gorrini  in  his  biography  of  Dr.  Baccelli, 
“as  the  increase  in  the  study  of  agrarian  matters  and  laws  will 
restore  to  healthy  conditions  the  masses  of  the  urban  populations  by 
directing  them  to  the  conquest  of  the  uncultivated  national  lands, 
still  unredeemed  from  ignorance  and  the  latifundia,”  the  curse  of  the 
Roman  Empire  and  of  modern  Italy  still. 

STATISTICS  OF  “GINNASIl”  (5  YEARS  COURSE)  AND  ^LICEl”  (3  YEARS 

COURSE)  for  1895-96. 

The  Ginnasii. — In  1895-96  there  were  708  ginnasii,  of  which  183 
were  State  institutions,  83  equaled  in  rank  the  State  ones  (57  sup- 
ported  by  the  communes,  24  by  bequests,  1  by  the  clergy,  and  1  by 


856  EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

donations),  and  442  did  not  equal  the  State  ones  (1  supported  by  a 
province,  31  by  communes,  24  by  bequests,  257  by  religious  corpora¬ 
tions,  and  129  by  donations).  The  number  of  ginnasii,  compared  to 
those  of  1893-94,  has  been  augmented  by  3  in  the  Venice  Province, 
3  in  Sicily,  3  in  Sardinia,  2  in  Liguria,  1  in  Piedmont,  1  in  the  Cam¬ 
pania,  and  has  been  decreased  by  2  in  the  Province  of  Umbria,  2  in 
Calabria,  1  in  Abruzzi,  1  in  the  Puglie,  and  1  in  the  Basilicata, 
making  a  net  gain  of  6. 

Their  total  number  of  students  was  54,137  in  1893-94,  and  55,515 
in  1895-96,  or  1,378  more.  In  1893-94  the  number  of  girl  pupils  reg¬ 
istered  for  classic  education  was  732,  and  912  in  1895-96,  an  increase 
of  180. 

Examinations  for  promotion. — In  the  first  four  courses  of  the  gin¬ 
nasii  46,542  pupils  were  present  at  the  end  of  1895-96,  of  whom  6,217 
were  promoted,  without  examination,  for  merit,  and  3,147  passed  their 
examination  for  admission  to  a  superior  class;  8,773  were  refused 
promotion,  and  1,405  did  not  attend  examination. 

In  1893-94,  in  the  first  four  gymnasial  courses,  of  each  100  pupils 
16  were  promoted  without  examination,  63  were  promoted  after  exam¬ 
ination,  17  were  refused  promotion,  and  4  did  not  take  the  examina¬ 
tion.  The  corresponding  proportions  for  1895-96  are  as  follows:  13, 
65,  19,  3. 

The  examination  for  admission  to  the  licei  was  given  for  1895-96  in 
280  ginnasii,  and  the  number  of  those  promoted  amounted  to  6,686 
(including  130  girls)  out  of  9,668  candidates,  as  against  9,221  candi¬ 
dates  and  6,268  promoted  in  1893-94. 

The  professors  in  the  ginnasii  for  1895-96  numbered  4,739,  not 
including  333  directors  without  a  chair  and  328  gymnastic  teachers. 
Of  the  given  total,  however,  847  held  courses  also  in  another  insti¬ 
tute.  In  1893-94  there  were  4,468  jirofessors,  of  whom  759  taught  as 
wTeil  in  another  institute,  besides  258  directors  and  294  gymnastic- 
teachers. 

The  licei. — During  1895-96  there  wrere  open  332  licei  (116  State 
institutions,  29  ranked  as  equal  to  State  ones,  and  187  not  thus 
ranked).  Of  these  last,  3  were  supported  by  the  commune,  3  by 
bequests,  136  by  religious  corporations,  and  45  by  private  donations. 
The  total  number  was  21  greater  than  in  1893-94. 

The  following  classification  may  be  made  of  the  licei  and  the 
students  registered  in  them  for  1893-94  a#nd  1895-96 : 


Licei  supported  "by — 

1893-94. 

1895-96. 

Licei. 

Students. 

Licei. 

Students. 

The  State . 

113 

10, £92 

116 

10, 945 

Communes,  ranked . . 

18 

1, 100 

19 

1,195 

Beouests,  ranked .  . . 

9 

447 

10 

587 

Communes,  not  ranked . . . 

3 

49 

3 

82 

Bequests,  not  ranked. . . . 

4 

103 

3 

67 

Religious  corporations,  not  ranked. . 

117 

3, 083 

136 

3, 461 

Private  fundSi  not  racked . 

47 

1, 3G0 

45 

1,349 

311 

16, 414 

332 

17, 689 

The  table  shows  an  increase  of  1,275  students  in  the  two  years; 
among  the  students  in  1895-96  there  were  216  girls,  as  against  only 


111  in  1893-94. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM.  857 


Examination  for  promotion  from  the  first  two  of  the  three  lyceal 
courses  to  the  'third  and  last  (giving  number  of  students) : 


1893-94. 

1895-96. 

Promoted  without  examination . - . . . 

1. 581 
7,373 
1,817 
483 

1,533 
7, 689 
2, 113 
616 

Promoted  after  examination, . . .  .  _ 

Not  promoted... . . . . . . . . 

N  ot  examined . . . . . . . 

Per  cent  promoted  in  1894,  79.57;  per  cent  promoted  in  1896,  77.16; 
or  13  per  cent  promoted  without  examination,  64  per  cent  after  exami¬ 
nation,  18  per  cent  not  promoted,  and  5  per  cent  not  examined. 

Examination  at  the  close  of  the  third  course  for  admission  to  the 
University  or  to  a  superior  institute,  for  1895-96:  Students  examined, 
6,600,  of  whom  4,252  passed.  In  1893-94  there  were  5,933  examined, 
of  whom  3,788  passed. 

Per  cent  of  students  examined,  promoted  to  the  university  or  to  a 
superior  institute,  from  each  class  of  licei:  Percentage  from  State 
licei,  85.68;  jiareggiate  or  ranked  as  State,  72.87.  Isot  ranked:  Com¬ 
munal,  29.31;  endowed,  60.00;  corporations,  78.87;  private,  44.14. 
Among  those  promoted  for  1896  there  were  44  girl  students. 


Teaching  force. 


Year. 

Licei. 

Profes¬ 

sors. 

Direct¬ 

ors. 

Gymnas¬ 

tic 

teachers. 

1893-94 . . . . . - 

311 

332 

1,806 

1,852 

141 

135 

1895-96  . . . . 

167 

156 

The  number  of  students  seeking  admission  to  and  instruction  in 
licei  is  such  that  a  number  of  “  licei  annexes ”  have  sprung  into 
existence  in  late  years. 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION:  AGRICULTURAL,  COMMERCIAL,  INDUS¬ 
TRIAL,  AND  NAUTICAL. 

When  one  realizes  that  for  success  in  life,  besides  the  ethical  object 
of  instruction,  to  wit,  the  training  of  the  intellect  and  of  the  heart, 
there  must  immediately  follow  the  consideration  of  the  usefulness  of 
some  practical  training,  he  has  grasped  the  full  purport  of  secondary 
instruction,  in  that  department  especially  in  which  it  prepares  youth 
for  agricultural,  industrial,  and  commercial  pursuits.  It  takes, 
indeed,  a  man  of  good  ethical  and  practical  education  to  make  of 
commerce  not  only  a  mere  matter  of  business,  but  a  congenial  pur¬ 
suit  leading  to  the  welfare  of  a  given  country,  in  the  expectation  that 
this  twofold  moral  and  practical  training  may  one  day  blend  the  nat¬ 
ural  law  of  “love  and  hunger,”  of  which  wrote  the  immortal  Goethe, 
into  a  by-law  of  fraternity  of  all  nations.  I  think  that  in  the  modern 
effort  of  bringing  nations  into  closer  contact,  the  Anglo-Saxon  race, 
the  most  powerful  one  to-day,  owing  to  the  spirit  of  reform  of  the 
Middle  Ages  that  revolutionized  her  life,  deserves  the  greatest  part 
of  the  merit.  Because,  if  it  is  true  that  the  Italian  genius  of  Colum¬ 
bus,  Polo,  Amerigo,  Cabot,  etc.,  leading  humanity  across  mysterious 
and  dreaded  seas,  marked  the  highest  triumph  of  the  Latin  race,  and 


858 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


that  Latins  and  Anglo-Saxons  alike  followed  in  the  wake  of  the  dis¬ 
coverers  to  conquer  and  populate  this  continent,  hoisting  their  flag 
here  and  there,  the  first  result  was  that  there,  where  the  Anglo-Saxon 
settled,  a  new  civilization,  symbolized  by  moral,  civil,  and  Religious 
liberty  and  equity  among  men,  spread  over  land  and  sea. 

No  wonder,  therefore,  that  to-day,  a  consequence  of  yesterday,  the 
Anglo-Saxon  commercial  schools,  based  on  the  most  improved  peda¬ 
gogical  methods,  know  how  to  efficiently  train  youth  for  the  world’s 
competitive  arena  of  trade  and  commerce. 

Italian  secondary  instruction  lias  made  of  late  a  marked  progress; 
but  when  its  programmes  are  compared  with  those  of  other  nations, 
they  still  appear  to  be  far  below  the  training  of  the  German  and  Eng¬ 
lish  or  American  schools.  Nothing  short  of  the  full  carrying  out  of 
the  reform  now  going  on  in  this  branch  of  education  in  Itaty  will, 
eventually,  arm  the  Italians  in  a  fitting  manner  to  stand  a  chance  in 
the  markets  of  the  world. 

Hon.  G.  Baccelli,  in  planning  his  reform  for  secondary  instruction, 
has  distinguished  three  types  of  technical  schools,  to  wit,  the  agricul¬ 
tural  the  industrial,  and  the  commercial,  to  correspond  to  the  local 
wants  of  the  different  sections  of  Italy,  the  programme  for  the  first 
type  of  school  being  farming  and  natural  sciences;  for  the  second, 
practical  and  theoretic  industrial  technology,  experiments  in  mechan¬ 
ics,  and  the  like;  for  the  third,  a  general  education,  equipping  youth 
especially  for  home  business,  but  as  well  for  international  commer¬ 
cial  affairs,  adding  to  it  that  ethical  training,  by  which  “blighting 
egotism,”  so  easily  engendered  by  the  study  of  commercial  branches, 
shall  not  prevent  a  young  merchant  from  becoming  a  good  and 
a  refined  citizen. 

It  is  understood,  however,  remarks  Professor  Chiarini,  director  of 
secondary  instruction,  in  his  quite  recent  report,  that  the  reform 
bearing  on  the  three  described  types  of  schools  for  secondary  instruc¬ 
tion  preserves  to  them  the  character  of  “schools  of  general  culture,” 
therefore  they  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  “practical  schools  of 
agriculture,”  the  “schools  of  application”  or  “arti  e  mestieri,”  the 
“special  schools  of  commerce,”  and  the  “industrial  schools”  now 
under  the  direction  of  the  department  of  agriculture  and  commerce. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  year  19  state  secondary  schools  had 
already  been  re-formed  to  the  new  type — G  agrarian,  2  industrial,  and 
1 1  commercial — and  many  others  were  in  process  of  reformation. 

That  Italy,  a  maritime  nation  “par  excellence,”  situated  by  nature 
on  the  sea,  in  a  unique  association  with  three  continents,  Europe, 
Africa,  and  Asia,  may  through  its  re-formed  commercial  educational 
methods  gain  in  time  a  respectable  rank  in  international  commerce, 
will  be  easily  conceded,  owing  to  its  marvelous  faculty  of  assimilat¬ 
ing  the  perfected  methods  and  sciences  of  other  nations;  and  also  to 
the  recent  awakening  of  her  maritime  genius,  that  once,  before  the 
growth  of  the  English  genius  for  commercial  conquest,  had  made  of 
the  Republics  of  Venice,  Genoa,  Pisa,  and  Amalfi,  for  centuries,  the 
queens  of  the  sea. 


STATISTICS  OF  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS  OF  GENERAL  CULTURE  AND 

COLLEGES  (CONVITTl). 

The  technical  school  has  a  three-years’  course,  leading  to  the  tech¬ 
nical  superior  institute  of  a  two-years’  course.  In  1895-96  there  were 
381  technical  schools,  with  a  registration  of  36,654  pupils,  reduced  at 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


859 


tlic  end  of  the  year  to  33,351,  as  against  32,775  for  1393-94, 
follows : 


as 


Class  of  technical  school. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Students. 

1893-94. 

1895-90. 

State . . . . . 

181 

20,430 

257 

21,591 

Provincial,  ranked.. . . . . 

2 

187 

Communal,  ranked . . . 

80* 

7, 001 
495 

7, 715 

Endowed,  ranked . . . .  . 

9 

35 

515 

Communal,  not  ranked .  . . . . . 

1, 451 
555 
90 

1,139 

578 

Endowed,  not  ranked _ _ _ _ _ _ 

12 

Reliedous  eornoration.  not  ranked  _  __  _  _  _ 

2 

86 

Private,  not  ranked . . . 

05 

1, 890 

1, 540 

Free  attendance . . . 

387 

32, 775 
180 

33, 351 
390 

Total  students . .  . . . 

32,901 

33, 741 

Girl  students  for  1893-94,  1,963;  for  1895-96,  2,818. 


Examination  for  promotion  from  the  first  to  the  second  class. — In 
1895-96  there  were  25,533  students  examined,  of  whom  1,131  (276 
girls)  were  promoted  without  examination,  14,017  (1,404  girls)  after 
examination,  8,661  (430  girls)  were  not  promoted,  and  1,721  (84  girls) 
were  absent  at  the  time  of  the  examination. 

Out  of  the  total  attendance  for  1895-96  on  the  two  first  courses,  4 
per  cent  were  promoted  without  examination,  55  per  cent  after  exam¬ 
ination,  34  per  cent  were  not  promoted,  and  7  per  cent  were  not 
present,  as  against  the  corresponding  percentages  of  4,  57,  32,  and  7 
for  1893-94. 

The  results  of  the  examination  of  “licenza”  (1895-96),  admitting  to 
the  superior  technical  institute  (two  years’  course),  in  286  technical 
schools,  were  as  follows : 


Class  of  school. 

Examined. 

Passed. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

4,729 

2,151 

201 

3,624 
1, 590 
128 

76. 63 

Ranked  .  _ _ _ _ - . . . - . . 

73. 82 

Provincial,  not  ranked . . . . . . . 

63. 68 

Endowed,  not  ranked _ 

101 

66 

65.35 

Corporation,  not  ranked _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

5 

3 

60.00 

Private,  Tint,  ra.nked.  _  _  _ _ _  _  _  _ 

583 

292 

50.08 

Family  instruction . 

671 

305 

45. 45 

Total  _  _ _ _ _ _ _ 

8,444 

6,608 

Passed  examination . . . - . .  470 

Passed  after  first  examination . . . . . 2, 8l3 

Passed  fall  reexamination . . . . .  2, 725 


The  total  number  promoted  for  1895-96  was  6,008  (484  girls),  as 
against  5,941  for  1893-94. 


Teaching  force. 


Year. 

Profess¬ 

ors. 

Directors. 

Gymnastic 

teachers. 

1893-94  . . . . 

2, 825 
2, 755 

115 

276 

1895-90  . 

125 

323 

860 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 
TECHNICAL  INSTITUTES. 


The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  technical  institutes  and 
students  attending  them  for  the  two  years  specified : 


Year. 

Number 
of  insti¬ 
tutes. 

Stu¬ 

dents. 

Special 

students. 

1893-94. . . . . . . . . 

72 

74 

8,259 
9, 144 

930 

263 

1895-96 . . 

Or  an  increase  of  1,027  registered  students  in  1896  and  a  decrease 
of  84-9  special  students,  owing  to  a  decision  of  the  department  of  pub¬ 
lic  education  (1895)  denying  to  all  nonpromoted  or  not-admitted  out¬ 
side  students  inscription  as  “  special”  in  the  class  to  which  they 
aspired,  or  to  a  superior  one. 

The  attendance  for  1895-96  in  the  74  institutes  was  as  follows: 


Common  year _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3, 342 

Physico-mathematical  section _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 581 

Surveying  section _ _ _ 1,  504 

Agricultural  section _ _ 18 

Commerce  and  accounts  section . . . . .  2,  576 

Industrial  section . 123 


9,144 

Special.  _ _ _ _ _  263 


Making  a  total  of  9,407.  Included  in  this  number  were  50  girls,  as 
against  23  for  1893-94. 

At  the  examination  for  promotion  to  the  secpnd  year  69  per  cent 
were  promoted,  20  per  cent  not  promoted,  and  3  per  cent  were  absen¬ 
tees;  550  were  without  examination. 

Examination  of  “licenza”  in  69  institutes:  Out  of  2,304  pupils  (in¬ 
cluding  4  girls)  of  the  second  year  course,  1,543  passed,  or  66.97  per 
cent  of  the  candidates,  as  against  1,521  licensed,  or  68.79  per  cent,  in 
1893-94,  as  follows: 


1893-94. 

1895-96. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Physico-mathematical  section . 

481 

67.27 

441 

67. 25 

Surveying  section  . . . . . 

393 

64. 85 

442 

65. 97 

Agricultural  section _ .• . . . 

5 

62.  50 

12 

60. 00 

Commerce  and  accounts  section  . . 

613 

72.  46 

618 

67.17 

Industrial . 

29 

80. 18 

30 

78.95 

1,521 

68.79 

1,543 

66. 97 

The  lowered  percentage  of  the  “licensed”  in  1895-96  is  due  to  the 
participation  in  the  examination  of  students  prepared  by  private 
instructors  or  private  institutes;  the  licensed  students  of  State  courses 
amounted  to  83.81  per  cent  of  the  candidates. 

The  number  of  instructors  in  technical  institutes  was  as  follows : 


Year. 

Number 
of  insti¬ 
tutes. 

Profess¬ 

ors. 

Presidi. 

Profess¬ 
ors  of 
gymna¬ 
sium. 

1893-94  . . . 

72 

1,290 

1,314 

10 

65 

1895-96  . . . 

74 

10 

64 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


861 


NAUTICAL  INSTITUTES. 

In  1895-06  there  were  21  nautical  institutes,  of  which  19  were  State 
schools,  1  communal,  and  1  private,  with  550  attending  students,  44 
special  students,  and  309  registered  for  the  two  years  of  the  prepara¬ 
tory  course. 

The  attendance  on  the  various  sections  was  as  follows: 


1393-94. 

1895-96. 

Sea  captains  . . 

45 

33 

4 

Naval  constructors  of  second  class . . . .  . 

5 

Machinists  of  second  class . _ . . .  . . 

15 

4 

Captains  of  high  seas.  _ . . .  . . . 

256 

157 

Constructors  of  first  class . - . _  . .  _  . . _ . 

23 

14 

Machinists  of  first  class . . 

410 

306 

Preparatory  course  -  . . - . . . 

781 

132 

550 

309 

Special  . .  .  . . .  . . 

75 

50 

In  the  examination  for  promotion,  out  of  336  students  attending  the 
different  sections  (excepting  the  last  year,  when  the  examination  for 
letters  patent  follows),  21  were  promoted  without  examination,  214 
after  examination,  83  were  not  promoted,  and  18  were  absent;  or,  out 
of  each  100  students  having  attended  courses,  70  were  promoted,  25 
not  promoted,  and  5  were  absentees. 

In  the  examination  of  “licenza”  in  18  institutes  there  were  419 
candidates,  of  whom  285  passed,  or  68  per  cent,  as  against  461,  280, 
and  61  per  cent  in  1893-94. 

Of  the  285  in  1895-96,  141  passed  at  the  first  examination  and  145 
at  the  fall  reexamination;  5  received  letters  patent  of  sea  captains,  4 
of  naval  constructors  of  second  class,  7  of  machinists  of  second  class, 
69  of  high-seas  captains,  6  of  naval  constructors  of  first  class,  and  194 
of  machinists  of  first  class.  Of  the  285  naval  students  thus  licensed, 
173  belonged  to  State,  6  to  nonranked,  and  4  to  private  institutes, 
while  102  studied  privately  for  preparation. 

Number  of  professors  in  twenty-one  nautical  institutes :  In  1893-94, 
professors,  181;  presidi,  6;  professors  of  gymnasium,  19.  In  1895-96, 
professors,  183;  presidi,  7;  professors  of  gymnasium,  18. 

STATISTICAL  SUMMARY  OF  SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION. 

The  following  table  shows  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in 
fifteen  years  (1881-1896): 


Class  of  schools. 

Year. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Students 

registered. 

Graduates 

(licenza). 

Ginnasii . 

1881 

701 

41,124 

4, 820 

1896 

708 

59, 578 

6, 686 

Licei . . . . .  ... 

1881 

298 

11.133 

2,981 

1896 

332 

17, 689 

4,272 

Technical  schools . 

1881 

383 

22, 120 

3,233 

1896 

381 

36, 054 

6,008 

Technical  institutes . . . 

1881 

79 

6,878 

1,098 

1896 

74 

9,943 

1, 543 

Nautical  institutes . 

1881 

26 

816 

£40 

1896 

21 

907 

285 

862 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


Tims  it  is  shown  that  while  the  number  of  schools  for  secondary 
instruction  is  about  the  same  in  1896  as  in  1881,  except  the  nautical 
institutes,  all  branches  of  instruction  have  an  increased  number  of 
students,  the  increase  being  45  per  cent  for  the  ginnasii,  67  per  cent 
for  the  licei,  and  67  per  cent  for  the  technical  schools. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  latest  figures  on  secondary 
instruction,  from  advance  sheets  of  the  reports  for  1896-97  and  1897-98 : 


State  ginnasii  - . 

Ginnasii  ranked  as  State . 

Total. . . . . . . 

State  licei . . . 

Licei  ranked  as  State . . 

Total . 

State  technical  schools . . 

Technical  schools  ranked  as  State 


Total. . 

State  technical  institutes _ 

Technical  institutes  ranked  as  State 

Total . . 

Naval  institutes,  State  . . 

Naval  institutes,  private . 

Total. . . . . . 


1S9? 

'-98. 

1896-97.- 

Pupils. 

Number 

of 

schools. 

Pupils. 

Pupils. 

Increase. 

De¬ 

crease. 

183 

25, 551 

81 

8, 095 

264 

33,646 

34, 357 

711 

116 

10, 675 

29 

1, 744 

145 

12, 419 

12,432 

13 

184 

24,  (549 

95 

9,914 

279 

34,563 

33, 875 

688 

10,382 

1,353 

11,735 

11,880 

145 

18 

926 

1 

20 

19 

946 

918 

28 

Increase  of  pupils  between  1896-97  and  1897-98, 1,218. 


Since  1888  the  statistics  of  the  convitti  have  included  also  the  insti¬ 
tutions  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb,  but  the  convitti  annexed 
to  the  practical  schools  of  agriculture  and  to  the  agricultural  schools, 
and  also  the  convitti  attached  to  exclusively  professional  schools,  are 
not  included. 

In  1895-96  there  were  919  convitti  for  males,  50  of  which  were  State 
schools,  15  provincial,  62  communal,  220  endowed,  297  supported  by 
religious  corporations,  and  275  private,  being  an  increase  of  6  over 
1894. 

As  to  attendance,  in  1893-94  there  were  60,105  male  pupils  in  all 
the  convitti  (86  per  cent  in  the  schools  annexed  to  the  convitto  itself). 
In  1895-96  there  were  only  58,839,  or  a  decrease  of  1,266  pupils  from 
the  previous  year. 

In  915  out  of  the  919  convitti  in  1895-96  there  were  915  directors,  of 
whom  557  were  priests.  In  255  convitti  the  teachers  were  all  priests, 
in  240  partly  priests  and  partly  civilians,  and  in  100  there  were  no 
teachers  besides  the  director.  As  in  preceding  years,  “secular 
priests,”  viz,  those  not  inscribed  in  any  religious  order,  constituted 
the  majority. 

As  to  the  annual  contributions  of  the  pupils,  the  following  figures 
were  gathered  by  the  general  director  of  statistics  (915  convitti  fur¬ 
nished  in  season  their  figures):  In  120  convitti  all  the  inmates  were 
admitted  gratuitously,  in  473  on  payment,  and  in  322  partly  on 
payment  and  partly  gratuitously. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


8G3 


CONVITTI  FOR  FEMALES. 

Iii  1893-01  there  were  1392  convitti  for  females,  with  50,162  pupils, 
and  in  1895-96  there  were  1,456,  with  49,367  pupils.  Of  these  convitti; 
11  were  State  schools,  25  provincial,  47  communal,  718  endowed,  and 
665  private. 

The  number  of  girls  attending  “special  schools”  of  singing,  music, 
embroidery,  etc.,  was  4,629;  normal  schools,  4,620;  elementary  or 
complementary  and  superior  schools,  40,118;  total,  49,367,  as  against 
35,54.3  in  1885,  or  an  increase  in  ten  years  of  13,824  female  pupils. 
Out  of  the  1,456  directors,  male  and  female,  of  the  female  convitti, 
917  were  priests  and  539  civilians.  The  instructors  were  divided  as 
follows:  665  priests,  462  civilians,  and  236  unclassified. 

Of  the  female  convitti,  436  were  free,  592  admitted  pupils  on  full 
payment,  and  415  admitted  part,  free  and  part  on  payment. 

“In  the  female  convitti,”  states  the  director  of  statistics,  “instruc¬ 
tion  is,  as  a  rule,  given  by  nuns,”  thus  making  evident  that  in  Italy 
the  education  of  girls,  outside  of  those  attending  State  schools,  is  still 
almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  to  the  extent  of  at  least 
about  50,000  girls.  The  same  thing  can  be  said  of  male  convitti 
enrolling  58,839  students. 

OTHER  INSTITUTIONS. 

Of  the  8  special  schools  of  agriculture  founded  between  1879  and 
1898,  5  are  devoted  to  vine  culture,  .!  to  olive  culture  and  oil  making, 
1  to  pomology  and  horticulture,  and  1  to  zootechny  and  cheese  making. 

In  1897-98  these  8  schools  had  90  instructors  and  assistants  and 
410  students;  in  1898-99,  496  students.  There  were  89  diplomas 
granted  for  1897-98. 

There  are  28  jiractical  schools  of  agriculture,  having  112  teachers 
and  assistants;  number  of  students  in  1897-98,  951;  in  1898-99,  1,085. 
There  were  201  diplomas  granted  in  1897-98. 

There  are  thus  in  all  36  agricultural  schools,  which  had  in  1898-99 
a  total  of  202  teachers  and  1,581  students.  The  4  schools  of  mines 
had  14  teachers  and  42  pupils,  and  issued  6  diplomas  in  1897-98. 

Industrial  and  commercial  schools. 


Kind  of  schools. 

Schools. 

Pupils. 

Superior  schools  of  art  applied  to  industry . 

6 

65 

105 

12 

14 

174 

847 
14, 417 

11.256 
1, 004 
4. 908 

12. 256 

Schools  of  arts  and  trades". . . - . . . .  . . 

Schools  of  art  applied  to  industry _ _ _  _  ..  _ _ _ _ _ 

Special  schools  for  males . . . . . .  ...  . . 

Professional  schools  for  females . . . . . . 

Schools  of  design  and  plastic  art . . . . . . 

Total . . . .  . . . . 

376 

44,  778 

These  last  schools  are  located  in  the  69  provinces. 

There  are  also  26  academies  and  institutes  of  the  fine  arts,  of  which 
13  are  national  and  13  private.  These  had  in  1897-98  230  teachers 
and  3,886  pupils.  The  Institute  of  Fine  Arts,  at  Florence,  dates  from 
1350,  the  Academy  of  Carrara  from  1769,  the  Academy  of  Milan  from 
1776,  the  Institute  of  Modena  from  1786,  and  the  Institute  of  Parma 
from  1756.  The  others  have  been  established  during  the  present 
century. 


864 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


Italy  lias  G  national  institutes  and  conservatories  of  music,  which 
had  145  teachers  and  875  pupils  in  1897-98.  Of  the  pupils,  555  were 
males  and  320  females.  The  College  of  Music,  at  Naples,  the  oldest 
of  them,  dates  from  1806. 

There  are  also  in  Italy  a  great  number  of  private  institutes,  and 
conservatories  of  music;  among  these  5  musical  lyceums  and  40  pri¬ 
vate  or  municipal  conservatories  and  musical  institutes  attain  to  the 
standard  of  the  national  institutions. 

Normal  schools  of  choral  singing  are  attached  to  the  conservatories 
of  Naples  and  Parma.  Their  two  years’  courses  embrace,  beside  the 
theory  and  practice  and  the  art  of  singing,  elementally  harmony  and 
practice  on  the  keys  of  an  instrument;  also  anatomy,  physiology, 
hygiene,  and  their  applications  to  singing. 

There  are  in  Italy  11  military  institutes  and  superior  schools.  The 
Military  Academy  of  Turin,  dating  from  1669,  teaches  the  art  of  war, 
the  use  of  artillery,  engineering,  and  military  sanitation.  There  is 
also  a  normal  school  of  infantry  and  another  of  cavalry.  In  1897-98 
the  11  institutes  had  299  instructors  and  1,616  pupils,  and  988  pupils 
were  promoted  at  the  end  of  their  courses  of  study. 

The  Naval  Academy,  at  Leghorn,  founded  in  1881,  and  the  School  of 
Pupil  Machinists,  ad  Venice,  founded  in  1862,  taken  together  had  79 
instructors  and  301  students,  of  whom  116  were  promoted. 

Of  the  32  State  libraries  the  largest  is  the  national  library  at  Naples. 
This  and  two  others  contain  more  tJian  100,000  volumes  each.  The 
total  number  of  books  and  manuscripts  in  1897-98  was  1,690,825,  of 
which  12,711  were  manuscripts.  The  number  of  readers  was  1,294,869. 
One  library  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  3  from  the  seventeenth, 
7  from  the  eighteenth,  and  2  are  of  this  century. 

The  libraries  of  Italy  may  be  grouped  into  the  following  11  classes: 


1.  National  libraries: 


Autonomous  . .  17 

University  . . . . . 15 


National,  properly  so  called  12 


2.  Libraries  of  superior  institutes _ 

3.  Provincial  and  communal  libraries. 

4.  Primary  and  secondary  school 

libraries . - . 

5.  Libraries  of  military  institutes 

and  academies . . . 

6.  Archives  and  departmental  Gov¬ 

ernment  libraries . 


No.  of 
libraries. 

No.  of 
libraries, 

44 

9 

7.  Libraries  of  academies,  scientific 

institutes,  and  chambers  of  com¬ 
merce  _ _  _ 

8.  Libraries  of  private  or  moral 

bodies,  foundations,  mutual  ben¬ 
efit  societies,  reading  cabinets 

172 

418 

open  to  the  public  _  . . _ 

478 

378 

9.  Religious  seminary  libraries  . 

10.  Libraries  of  hospitals,  congrega¬ 
tions,  and  benevolent  societies. .. 

175 

26 

45 

11.  Private  (most  important  ones) ... 

40 

46 

Grand  total.  . . . 

1,831 

VI.  Statistics  of  Special  Superior  Instruction. 


The  following  list  gives  the  names  and  locations  of  the  11  superior 
special  schools,  with  the  dates  of  their  foundation: 

Bari:  Superior  School  of  Commerce,  188G. 

Florence:  School  of  Social  Science,  1875. 

Florence:  Superior  Institute  of  Work  for  Women,  1882. 

Genoa:  Superior  School  of  Commerce,  1884. 

Genoa:  Superior  Naval  School,  1870. 

Milan:  Superior  School  of  Agriculture,  1870. 

Portici:  Superior  School  of  Agriculture,  1872. 

Rome:  Superior  Institute  of  Work  for  Women,  1882. 

Turin:  Museum  of  Italian  Industry,  1862. 

Vallombroso:  Institute  of  Forestry,  1869. 

Venice;  Superior  School  of  Commerce,  1868. 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


8G5 


These  schools  had,  in  1895-9G,  137  professors,  748  students,  Go  audi¬ 
tors,  and  granted  97  diplomas.  The  following  courses  are  taught  in 
them,  among  others:  Social  sciences,  jurisprudence,  courses  for  pub¬ 
lic  notaries  (who  in  Italy  correspond  to  public  registers  and  recorders), 
consular  courses,  superior  courses  of  commerce,  of  normal  economy, 
of  statistics,  of  public  law  for  accountants  and  computers,  of  foreign 
languages,  of  chemical  and  mechanical  industries,  of  ornamentation, 
of  electrotechnic  science  for  civil  engineers,  of  customs  and  tariffs, 
of  naval  mechanics  and  hydrography,  of  agrarian  sciences,  and  of 
forestry. 

t/ 


VII.  Superior  Instruction — Universities. 


Superior  instruction  in  Italy  is  given  in  17  State  universities  and  4 
independent  ones,  twenty-one  in  all. 

The  State  universities  are  located  at  Turin,  Pavia,  Padua,  and 
Genoa,  in  northern  Italy ;  Bologna,  Pisa,  Pome,  Modena,  Parma, 
Siena,  and  Macerata,  in  central  Italy;  Naples,  in  southern  Italy; 
Palermo  and  Catania,  in  Sicily,  and  Cagliari  and  Sassari,  in  Sardinia. 

The  4  independent  universities  are  located  in  central  Italy  at 
Camerino,  Ferrara,  Perugia,  and  Urbino. 

In  southern  Italy  there  are  also  university  courses  attached  to  the 
lieei  of  Aquila  and  Bari,  as  well  as  at  Catanzaro,  in  Sicily.  There  are 
besides  in  Italy  13  superior  institutes,  viz:  Four  autonomous  schools 
of  applied  engineering,  at  Bologna,  Naples,  Pome,  and  Turin;  1  supe¬ 
rior  technical  institute,  at  Milan ;  3  superior  schools  of  veterinary  medi¬ 
cine,  at  Milan,  Napdes,  and  Turin;  1  institute  for  superior  studies, 
at  Florence;  1  scientific  and  literary  academy,  at  Milan;  1  superior 
normal  school,  at  Pisa,  and  2  superior  normal  female  institutes,  at 
Florence  and  Pome. 

There  are,  besides  the  above,  2  schools  of  applied  engineering  con¬ 
nected  with  the  universities  of  Padua  and  Palermo,  3  more  connected 
with  the  universities  of  Genoa,  Pavia,  and  Pisa,  with  one  single  course, 
and  4  schools  of  veterinary  medicine  connected  with  the  universities 
of  Bologna,  Modena,  Parma,  and  Pisa. 

All  of  the  above-mentioned  institutes  are  under  the  direction  of 
the  department  of  public  education.  A  list  will  be  given  farther  on 
of  other  superior  schools  controlled  by  other  departments,  such  as 
special  superior  schools  of  agriculture,  military  and  naval  colleges 
and  academies,  and  superior  schools  of  antiquities,  cartography, 
oriental  languages,  art,  singing,  music,  etc. 

The  students  registered  in  the  21  Italian  universities  and  the  3 
university  courses  numbered  21,813,  besides  34G  free  students.  There 
were  included  in  this  total  132  female  students.1 


1  The  young  women  students  were  divided  among  the  different  faculties  as 
follows: 


J  urisprudence .  4 

Medicine  and  surgery . . . . . . . . .  18 

Mathematics,  physics,  and  natural  sciences _ _ _ ^  _ _  30 

Philosophy  and  letters . 72 

Pharmacy . 8 


Total . . . . . . . 132 

ED  99 - 55 


806 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

Tlio  division  of  students  by  faculties  was  as  follows : 


1895-96. 

1S96-97. 

,T  ur  ispr  udence  _ _ - . . . - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 

6, 096 
6, 516 
2, 155 
1, 355 
676 

'  6,376 
6, 634 
2,595 
1, 357 
656 

Medicine  and  surgery . _  _ . _  _ . . 

Mathematics,  physics,  and  natural  sciences . 

Philosophy  and  letters _ _ _ _ 

Solicitors  and  noteries  public. . . . . . . 

Political,  administrative,  and  consular  courses 1 . . .  .  . . 

8 

School  of  pharmacy  for  the  “laurea” .  . . . . . . . 

£56 

278 

School  of  pharmacy  for  the  diploma  of  practice . . . . 

2,352 

299 

2,384 

598 

School  of  veterinary  medicine . . . . . . . . . . 

School  of  obstetrics . . . . . . . . . . 

1, 580 
352 

1,332 

857 

School  of  applied  engineering . . . - _ _ _ 

School  of  agricultural  sciences _ _ 

168 

Free  students. . 

345 

G  rand  total _ _ _ _ _ _ 

22, 158 

2  23, 285 

1  Nineteen  students  for  those  subjects,  besides  following  the  jurisprudence  courses. 

2  Showing  an  increase  in  one  year  alone  of  1,137  students  in  Italian  universities,  besides  an 
increase  of  1,498  in  thirteen  superior  institutes,  making  a  total  increase  in  superior  instruction 
between  1890  and  1898  of  2,635  students— a  cause  this  of  the  reform  in  this  branch  of  public  edu¬ 
cation,  as  will  be  shown  farther  on,  since,  according  to  the  latest  statistics  quoted  by  Hon. 
Senise  in  the  parliamentary  debates  on  the  reform  referred  to,  there  are  turned  out  1,200 
laureates  in  excess  of  the  national  want  every  year. 


The  results  of  the  examination  for  the  “laurea”  and  the  diploma  of 
practice  in  1895-96  were  as  follows: 


In  the  17  State  universities  . . . .  ..  3,972 

In  the  4  independent  universities _ _ _ _ _ _  116 

In  the  8  university  courses  attached  to  Licei . . .  54 

In  the  13  superior  institutes  . . . . .  504 


Total . . . . . . . . . . 4,736 


Out  of  this  total  4,557  secured,  according  to  the  use,  one  of  the 
three  degrees  of  doctor’s  “laurea,”  diploma,  or  simple  “certificate” 
of  admission  to  practice. 

Eighteen  “laurea”  have  been  obtained  by  female  students,  and 
58  of  them  secured  also  the  diploma  of  superior  magisterium. 

Students  and  courses  in  the  superior  institutes ,  1895-96. 


Stu¬ 

dents. 

Bologna _ _ _ ....... _ ... _ 

114 

^years’  course  for  civil  engineers;  3  years’  course  for  architects. 

Milau  _ _ _  .  _ _ _ 

432 

2  years’  course,  preparatory;  3  years’  course  for  civil  engineers;  3  years’  course 
for  industrial  engineers;  3  years’  course  for  architects;  4  years’  course  in  normal 
natural  sciences;"!  years’  course  in  physics;  4  years’  course  in  chemistry. 

Naples  .  .  _ 

237 

"3  years’  course  for  civil  engineers;  3  years’  course  for  architects. 

Rome .  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

172 

3  years’  course  for  civil  engineers;  3  years’  course  for  architects;  2  years’  course 
in  scientific  architecture  for  students  of  fine  arts  schools. 

Turin . . . . . _  _ . . . . . 

381 

3  years’  course  for  civil  engineers;  3  years’  course  for  industrial  engineers;  3  years’ 
course  for  architects. 

ldg 

4  years’  course  in  veterinary  medicine. 

Naples . . . . . . . . . . 

177 

4  years’  course  in  veterinary  medicine. 

Turin .  . . . . . . . 

88 

4  years’  course  in  veterinary  medicine. 

Florence . . .  .  . - . . 

587 

4  years’  course  in  philosophy  and  letters;  4  years’  course  in  physics  and  natural 
sciences;  6  years’  course  in  medicine  and  surgery;  5  years’  course  in  chemistry  and 
pharmacy;  4  years’  course  for  diploma  of  pharmacy;  2  years’  course  for  mid  wives’ 
diplomas. 

PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM. 


867 


Students  and  courses  in  the  superior  institutes,  1805-06 — -Continued. 


Stu¬ 

dents. 


Milan . 

4  years’  course  in  philosophy  and  letters;  4  years’  course  in  modern  languages. 

Pisa  . . . . . . . . 

4  years’  course  in  philosophy  and  philology;  4  years’  course  in  natural  and  physical 
sciences. 

Florence . . . - . - . - . 

2  years’  course  in  foreign  languages  and  literature;  2  years’  course  in  history,  geog¬ 
raphy,  pedagogy,  and  sciences. 

Rome . . . . 

2  years’  course  in  foreign  languages  and  literature;  2  years’  course  in  history,  geog¬ 
raphy,  pedagogy,  and  sciences. 

Total  for  1895-96 . . 

Total  for  1896-97 . . 

Total  for  1897-98 *  1 . . . . . . . . . 

Showing  an  increase  in  two  years  of  about  one-fifth. 


114 

39 


127 


98 


2, 668 
2, 935 
3, 166 


1  Tho  division  by  institutes  was  in  1897-98  as  follows: 

Students  in  11  superior  institutes . . . 2,589 

Students  in  2  female  normal  institutes . . . . . .  280 

Students  in  3  university  “licei  ”  courses . . . . . . . . .  259 

Students  in  1  institute  for  oriental  languages .  38 


Total . . . . . . . . .  3,166 


THE  UNIVERSITIES. 

One  of  tlie  greatest  problems  for  the  next  century  to  solve  with 
regard  to  superior  instruction  in  every  civilized  country,  although 
from  different  points  of  view,  is  to  reach  a  conclusion  on  the  much- 
debated  point  of  the  minimum  and  the  maximum  of  superior  educa¬ 
tion  conducive  to  a  nation’s  usefulness,  and  that  not  only  with  a  view 
to  keeping  a  permanent  rational  balance  of  instruction  between  the 
classes  in  which  society  is  divided,  but  also  to  avoiding  causes  of 
personal  distress  among  the  learned  classes.  A  most  dangerous  ele¬ 
ment  of  social  disturbance  this  the  more  the  distressed  individual  is 
put,  by  his  superior  education,  in  a  position  to  analyze  the  right  and 
the  wrong  of  life  and  of  society. 

The  far-sighted  remarks  of  C.  P.  Huntington  on  “Overeducation 
of  the  masses,”  deeply  criticised  of  late  because  in  tho  United  States 
there  seems  to  be  rather  a  necessity  for  superior  education  than  other¬ 
wise,  had  a  broad  counterpart  in  Europe,  at  Home,  pending  the  most 
important  parliamentary  debate  that  has  taken  place  there  (in  1883-84 
and  last  year)  on  university  and  superior  education;  there,  and  as 
will  eventually  be  the  case  everywhere  else  in  Europe  and  in  America, 

I  would  like  to  be  permitted  to  say,  since  the  field  covered  by  a  score 
of  learned  university  orators,  with  a  view  to  comparison,  indeed 
embraced  the  history  of  superior  instruction  the  civilized  world  over. 

From  the  circumstance  that  in  Italy  also,  the  very  land  of  classicism, 
as  in  France  and  German3r,  the  legislator  should  have  been  brought 
to  consider  as  a  necessity  “the  limiting  of  the  extension  of  superior 
and  university  education,”  one  may  find  a  suitable  explanation  in  the 
far-sighted  purpose  of  “timely  protecting  new  generations  from  the 
mania  of  graduation  for  the  purpose  of  ofiiee-seeking  only;”  a 
destroyer — this  tendency — of  ambition,  and  a  disorganizer  of  the 
energy  and  spirit  of  initiative  of  youth,  so  precious  to  nations,  in  the 
field  of  scientific  farming,  manufacturing,  mechanics,  commerce,  etc. 
The  idea  of  barring  in  part  the  inflow  to  the  university  seemed,  of 
course,  a  sacrilegious  attempt  to  many  an  Italian  sabean  of  the  “alma 


868 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 

mater;”  yet,  on  the  one  hand,  the  invasion  of  science  into  every 
realm  of  life,  revolutionizing  old  truths  and  methods,  thereby  render¬ 
ing  new  educational  conceptions  and  new  boundaries  unavoidable, 
and  the  fact,  on  the  other  hand,  that  within  the  last  twenty-five  years 
the  rate  of  gain  in  graduates  from  the  21  Italian  universities  has  been 
seven  times  the  corresponding  rate  of  increase  of  the  Italian  popula¬ 
tion,  were  such  a  statistical  indication  as  could  not  pass  without 
attracting  the  deepest  attention  and  calling  for  a  remedy.  Hence 
the  reform,  with  the  final  result  that  the  legislators,  whether  in  favor 
of  or  opposed  to  the  bill  presented  by  Hon.  G.  Baccelli  in  1898,  agree 
at  least  on  these  points  as  being  demanded  by  the  future  welfare 
of  their  country: 

First.  That  all  allowance  being  made  for  the  national  hereditary 
tendency  of  the  Italians  to  high  and  classic  education,  the  modern 
rush  for  it  is  such  as  to  justify  the  conviction  that  besides  that  noble 
tradition  the  crowding  of  universities  and  superior  institutes  is 
rather  a  run  for  the  4  4  laurea  ”  than  anything  else,  since  this  parch¬ 
ment  and  the  diplomas  open  the  doors  to  all  public  offices. 

Second.  On  the  absolute  necessity  of  a  44  State  examination,”  after 
the  attainment  by  the  student  of  the  44 laurea  ”  and  4 4 diploma;”  and 
tins  with  the  double  view  of  keeping  high  the  standard  of  superior 
education  and  of  affording  protection  to  society  itself  from  certain 
consequences  of  a  wholesale  free  practice  of  all  professions,  as  well  as 
preserving  unimpared  the  many  and  important  moral  and  material 
rights  that  such  documents  secure  to  their  recipients. 

Third.  On  the  much  debated  point  of  free  teaching  by  profes¬ 
sors,  4  4  libera  docenza”  being  considered  the  proper  counterpart  of  the 
“liberta  di  studiare” — a  free  curriculum  of  studies. 

THE  BILL  FOR  THE  REFORM  OF  SUPERIOR  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY. 


Presented  to  the  Parliament  July  4,  1898,  by  Hon.  G.  Baccelli,  minister  of  public  instruction  (for 

the  third  time)  of  Italy. 

In  introducing  his  bill  the  minister  compared  4  4  superior  instruc¬ 
tion  to  an  arm  of  precision  in  the  struggle  of  nations.”  Although 
Italian  science,  which  has  generally  originated  in  the  university,  he 
said,  has  kept  on  of  late  in  the  admirable  work  of  assimilation  of  the 
science  of  ot4lier  countries,  as  well  as  in  advancing  capitally  on  its 
own  lines,  especially  as  regards  the  biological  sciences,  the  scholastic 
curriculum  in  existence  did  by  no  means  favor  such  a  result.  It 
handicapped  it  rather,  owing  to  the  rigidity  of  its  old  and  new  by-laws 
alike,  and  to  obligatory  courses — a  real  burden  to  students,  steriliz¬ 
ing  superior  instruction.  Hence  the  necessity  of  a  new  law  destined 
to  pour,  through  freedom  of  teaching  and  learning,  a  modern  life 
into  the  university,  as  he  had  already  advocated  some  fourteen  years 
ago,  and  he  presented  such  a  law  to-day  for  adoption. 

The  first  article  will  give  the  reader  the  measure  of  the  reform,  viz: 

The  17  State  universities  and  12  superior  institutes,  as  per  list 
annexed,  are  granted  a  juridical  personality,  and  didactic,  admin¬ 
istrative,  and  disciplinary  autonomy  under  the  supervision  of  the 
State,  through  a  representative. 

The  by-laws  of  each  faculty  will  be  obligatory  upon  both  professors 
and  pupils. 

Article  2,  as  modified  or  completed  by  the  Parliamentary  commis- 


PUBLIC  EDUCATION  IN  ITALY  AND  ITS  REFORM.  869 

sion,  determines  the  rule  for  the  direction  of  the  university.  The 
rector,  appointed  by  the  Crown  on  the  nomination  of  the  college  of 
professors,  is  to  represent  the  university,  and  govern  it  together  with 
the  academic  bodies. 

The  representative  of  the  State  to  see  to  it  that  the  administration 
of  the  university’s  own  patrimony  and  the  scholastic  one  be  carried 
on  according  to  the  law  and  the  by-laws;  and  that  the  discipline  be 
duly  maintained. 

Article  3  provides  that  for  the  nomination  of  “ordinary”  and 
“extraordinary”  professors,  and  the  promotion  of  the  latter  to  “ordi¬ 
nary,”  the  right  of  nomination  is  vested  in  the  faculties,  the  sections  of 
superior  institutes  and  the  schools  of  superior  instruction,  the 
appointment  being  made  by  royal  decree. 

Article  5  establishes  the  right  of  the  universities  and  any  of  the 
institutes  exclusively  to  confer  the  title  of  “doctor”  (laurea);  and 
secures  to  the  State  the  right  of  granting  admission  to  practice  a 
profession,  after  a  State  examination. 

Article  8  provides  that  the  students’  contributions  toward  superior 
instruction  are  to  be  for  the  f  olio  wing :  For  registration,  for  admission 
to  the  universities,  registration  for  special  courses,  examination  of 
maturity,  of  laurea  or  diploma,  and  State  examination.  Also  contri¬ 
bution  for  admission  to  the  position  of  professor,  ordinary  or  extraor¬ 
dinary,  and  for  “libera  docenza”  of  independent  teachers. 

This  bill,  owing  to  the  Parliamentary  debate  that  followed  the 
uprising  at  Milan  and  other  cities  of  Italy  in  May,  1898,  failed  to  pass, 
but  is  expected  to  become  a  law  in  the  fall  session  of  this  year  (1899). 

By  it,  according  to  the  explanations  of  Hon.  G.  Baccelli,  university 
independence  is  asserted  with  regard  to  determining  the  limits  and 
the  duties  of  each  facult}^;  and  the  opportunity  is  offered  of  creating 
eventually  new  faculties,  such  as  the  proposed  “superior  faculty  of 
philosophy,”  aiming  at  a  closer  union  between  the  exact  and  the 
speculative  sciences ;  a  “  polytechnic  faculty,  ”  for  the  positive  sciences 
and  their  applications;  an  “agrarian  scientific  faculty;”  and,  in  a 
word,  all  those  didactic  experiences  that  the  academic  body  of  the 
university  shall  deem  useful,  pursuant  to  the  progress  of  science,  to 
adopt;  all  this  being  based  on  the  principal  of  freedom  of  teaching 
for  the  professors,  and  of  studying  on  a  personally  chosen  curriculum 
for  the  students.  I  think  it  useful  to  quote  here  what — in  the  course 
of  the  Parliamentary  debate  (March  10,  1899)  pending  the  comparison 
of  the  methods  adopted  by  each  nation  regarding  the  problem  of 
superior  education — the  Hon.  He  Marinis,  speaking  in  favor  of  the 
reform,  had  to  say  of  the  United  States: 

I  shall  remember  the  type  of  university  in  the  United  States,  where  of  the  370 
universities  or  colleges,  previous  to  1885  only  35  had  been  created  by  States  hold¬ 
ing  some  sort  of  control  on  them,  without  proving,  however,  better  for  that. 
*  *  *  Yet  that  is  the  most  advanced  type  of  autonomy.  *  *  * 

In  the  United  States  there  is  no  department  of  public  instruction,  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  of  Washington  being  mostly  a  bureau  of  statistics, 
very  different  from,  and  undoubtedly  much  more  useful  than  our  own  scholastic 
bureaucracy.  No  department  proves  more  useful  to  the  branch  it  supervises 
than  this  central  office  at  Washington,  that  does  not  dare  to  upset  the  functions 
of  the  university  organisms,  but  on  the  contrary  shows  them  ways  and  means  to 
progress  and  to  explicate  their  own  initiative.  There,  in  the  United  States,  the 
political  power  is  so  cognizant  of  the  right  of  superior  schools  to  independence  that 
in  case,  according  to  the  aspiration  of  Washington,  his  successors  should  create  a 
national  university,  this  very  university  would  still  enhance  the  importance  of 
the  free  and  autonomous  type  of  the  modern  atheueums  of  America. 


870 


EDUCATION  REPORT,  1898-99. 


The  “jus  erigendi  academias,”  it  was  stated  as  a  conclusion,  claimed 
three  centuries  ago  on  one  side  by  the  church  and  on  the  other  by  the 
state  in  continental  Europe,  when  the  foundations  of  the  modern 
States  were  being  laid,  has  foundered  in  the  subsequent  transforma¬ 
tion  of  modern  social  organisms,  and  has  become  a  tradition  of  the 
past. 

The  school  of  to-day  must  be  independent,  not  only  and  capitally  of 
the  church,  but  even  of  the  State  itself,  which,  however  progressive, 
has  no  claim  on  and  no  right  to  the  control  of  science. 

The  learned  of  the  United  States  will  undoubtedly  hail  with  favor 
the  triumph  of  the  reform  so  energetically  prosecuted,  although 
scarcely  yet  assured  for  Italy,  under  the  enlightened  leadership  of 
lion,  Guido  Baccelli  and  his  colaborers. 


